Paramountcy Principle Analysis

Paramountcy Principle Analysis Introduction Section 1(1) of the Children Act 1989 (CA) contains what is commonly referred to as the ‘paramountcy’ or ‘best interests principle’. The section provides: When a court determines any question with respect to— (a) the upbringing of a child; or (b) the administration of a child’s property or the application of any income arising from it,   the child’s welfare shall be the court’s paramount consideration. The paramountcy principle has been a feature of English law for a very long time (Alston Gilmour-Walsh 1996, p3) and from time to time, has been subjected to critical scrutiny (Reece 1996, p 267; Fineman 1988, p727). This essay investigates the extent to which the operation of parental responsibility and the application of the paramountcy principle conflict in private law disputes concerning children. Firstly, I briefly analyse the implications of the paramountcy principle and then I examine the cause of conflict between the application of the paramountcy principle and parental responsibility. In the penultimate section, I proffer an analysis for mitigating the conflict. I make my final observations in the conclusion. Implications of the welfare principle The welfare principle as set out in section 1(1) of the CA requires that the interests of the child are treated as paramount and so the interests of parents or other parties must be subordinated to those of the child. As Lord McDermott explained, the welfare principle, ‘connote[s] a process whereby when all the relevant facts, relationships, claims and wishes of parents, risks, choices and other circumstances are taken into account and weighed, the course to be followed will be that which is most in the interests of the child’s welfare’(Re KD (A Minor) (Wardship: Termination Of Access) [1970] AC 668 at pp710-711). Similarly, the Court of Appeal stated in Re P (Contact: Supervision) ([1996] 2 FLR 314 at p328) that the court is concerned with the interests of the mother and the father only in so far as they bear on the welfare of the child’. This view has been upheld in many other cases (Lowe 1997) like Re O (Contact: Imposition of Conditions) where it was held: It [is]worth statingsome very familiar but none the less fundamental principlesoverriding all elsethe welfare of the child is the paramount consideration it cannot be emphasised too strongly that the court is concerned with the interests of the mother and the father only in so far as they bear on the welfare of the child. Thus, the law’s rendering of the paramountcy principle is individualistic. Hence, the welfare of the child is viewed without consideration for the welfare or interests of the rest of his or her family, friends and community. Parental responsibility and the paramountcy principle Re K D (Minor) (Ward: Termination of Access) ([1988] 2 WLR 398) ) provides a good example of how the individualistic conception of the welfare principle works in actual practice. In that case, Lord Oliver specifically considered the mother’s appeal that the right to access was a parental right protected by article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 (ECHR) and that to terminate access with her child would result in a breach of her article 8 rights. In deciding the matter, Lord Oliver held: Parenthood [confers]on parents the exclusive privilege of orderingthe upbringing of children of tender age That is a privilege which is circumscribed by many limitations When the jurisdiction of the court is invoked for the protection of the child the parental privileges do not terminate. They do, however, become immediately subservient to the paramount consideration the welfare of the child. The idea of parental responsibility is concomitant with parental rights. Consequently, it has been suggested that the paramountcy principle does not sit well with the idea of parental rights/responsibility because the former is structured along welfarist principles whilst the latter is rights-based. In particular, it has been suggested that the principle goes against article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) which provides a qualified right to respect for private and family life, the home and correspondence. By encapsulating the rights of both parents and children to private and family life, article 8 appears on its face to come into clear conflict with the CA, which renders the child’s interests paramount. This criticism has become particularly compelling since the implementation of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) which domesticated Convention rights in the UK (Herring 1999b). However, it is possible (and indeed necessary) to expound an analytical framework which allows the recognition of both principles as being important for the survival and development of the child. Reconciling parental responsibility with the paramountcy principle-a rights-based analysis There is a strong consensus among family law practitioners that section 1(1) of the CA, as it is currently interpreted, reflects a predominantly utilitarian or welfarist approach. Stephen Parker in his seminal piece on family law and legal theory has analysed the movement of family law from a rights-based to a welfare-based approach (Parker 1992, p 311). In this regard, it is emphasised that before the HRA was enacted the rights-based model of family law had, been rejected due to the increasing dominance of the child-centred approach advocated by the paramountcy principle in section 1(1) of the CA. However, the CA, since it identifies the welfare of the child as the sole and decisive consideration, does not correspond to classic utilitarianism: it does not seek to arrive at an outcome which, overall, achieves the best result for the family members or others, but only for the child. In other words, it only requires that the child’s welfare should be paramount, rather than by direct reference to the principle of utility whereby actions that maximise the greatest welfare of the greatest number are preferentially singled out (Herring 1999b pp223-35). The paramountcy principle is not strictly welfarist principle as has been argued by many. At the same time it may be pointed out that the ECHR’s approach cannot be said to be fully rights-based. Although the Convention is clearly a classically or rights-based document since it assumes that certain rights and interests are intrinsically valuable and should prima facie be protected, its adherence to a strictly rights approach may be viewed as undermined in respect of the materially qualified articles such as articles 8-11. These articles proffer a qualified rights-based approach, since the qualifications of their second paragraphs allow the rights to be compromised by sufficiently weighty consideration (Mullender 2000, pp 493-516). Thus, although the Convention’s theoretical underpinnings differ significantly from those of the CA, the differences in their approaches and values may be less irreconcilable than some theorists have cared to acknowledge. However, demonstrating that the approaches between the paramountcy principle and the ECHR are not all that much at odds does not resolve the issue. This is because as it is currently conceived and applied, the paramountcy principle is incompatible with the demands of article 8 of the Convention. There is, therefore, a need for a reinterpretation of the principle under section 3(1) of the HRA in accordance with the interpretative obligation under that section, and of the need for taking account of the relevant Strasbourg jurisprudence under section 2. The term ‘paramount’ in section 1(1) of the CA needs to be redefined, but such redefinition need not be radical because the word ‘paramount’ also suggests the notion of ‘pre-eminency’, rather than the meaning the courts have so far given it under the CA, whereby it has in reality meant ‘sole’. However, given the scope for ambiguity that the courts might discover in the term ‘pre-eminent’, the term ‘primacy’ might be more in line with the ECHR’s provisions as well as the jurisprudence of the Strasbourg institutions. The adoption of that term could be viewed as a possible interpretation of the term ‘paramount’ and would obviate the need for a declaration of incompatibility under section 4 of the HRA. This rendering of the paramountcy principle is also in line with article 3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child which requires that in all actions concerning children, their best interests must be a primary consideration. The use of the article ‘a’ in the Convention suggests that the welfare or best interests of the child are to be considered, but that a number of other factors can also be considered (Alston 1994b). Clearly, these factors include the recognition of parental responsibility. Concluding remarks It is clear from the foregoing that despite its utilitarian foundations, the paramountcy principle can exist side by side with the rights-based approaches required by the application of parental responsibility. A persuasive case may indeed be made for the removal of the primacy principle. However, given the entrenchment of the principle in English law, it is not only desirable but possible to re-interpret the principle in a manner that comport well with the rights-based framework. The extent of dissonance between the two frameworks depends on the extent to which judges and practitioners are willing to accommodate a rights-based approach in dealing with matters that involve the two principles. Bibliography International Conventions Convention on the Rights of the Child European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 Statutes Children Act 1989 Human Rights Act 1998 Cases Re KD (A Minor) (Wardship: Termination of Access) [1970] AC 668 Re P (Contact: Supervision) [1996] 2 FLR 314 Re O (Contact: Imposition of Conditions) Books and articles Alston, P (ed), The best interests of the child: Reconciling culture and human rights, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994a. Alston, P ‘The best interests principle: Towards a reconciliation of culture and human rights’ in Alston, P (ed), The best interests of the child: Reconciling culture and human rights, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994b. Alston, P Gilmour-Walsh, B The best interests of the child: Towards a synthesis rights and cultural values, Florence: Innocenti Studies, 1996. Choudhry, S Fenwick, H ‘Taking the rights of parents and children seriously: Confronting the welfare principle under the Human Rights Act’ 2005 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 453. Eekelaar, J ‘Beyond the welfare principle’ 2002 Child and Family Law Quarterly 237. Fineman, M ‘Dominant discourse, professional language and legal change in child custody decision-making’ (1988) 101 Harvard LR 727. Fortin, J ‘The HRAs impact on litigation involving children and their families’ (1999) CFLQ 237. Herring, J ‘The Human Rights Act and the welfare principle in family law Conflicting or complementary?’ (1999a) CFLQ 223. Herring, J ‘The welfare principle and parents’ rights’, in A. Bainham, et al (eds) What is a parent? A socio-legal analysis London: Hart Publishing, 1999b. Mullender, R ‘Theorising the third way: Qualified consequentialism, the proportionality principle and the new social democracy’ (2000) 27(4) J. Law and Society 493. Parker, S ‘Rights and utility in Anglo-Australian family law’ (1992) 55 MLR 311. Van Bueren, G The international law on the rights of the child Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995.

American Promotionalism

Emergence of United States of America itself was an epitome of certain ideological expressions i. e. liberty, fraternity, equality etc but American progress in the political, social, economic and technological domains capacitated the American spirit to devise the new ideological patterns and modify the existing ones. The socio-economic growth of 19th century produced a phenomenon of liberal-developmentalism that contains the entire major thematic expressions of American ideology.This liberal-developmentalism ideology was a combination of American beliefs in their cherished ideals and these liberal beliefs were further augmented by the American historical experience of extraordinary triumphs in the in the socio-economic sectors. All these factors compelled the Americans to assume that their socio-economic model was of universal in nature and must be replicated at the universal level. So this ideology together with economic compulsions and mass production set an impetus to export the A merican dream to other geographical locations.The most widespread concern for American foreign policymakers remain that America has a peculiar destiny and that destiny must be expanded universally. So this ideological underpinning found its expression in the strategic and operational mechanisms of American foreign policies during the last decade of 19th century and first half of the 20th century. The culmination of World War II was the America was successful in inculcating their cherished ideals of democracy, capitalism, free trade etc. in the new world order. Major tenets of American ideology: Emily S.Rosenberg (1982) has recognized five underlying principle of the Liberal-Developmentalism ideology that emerged in the last half of 19th century. According to him, these major traits are; (1) belief that other nations could and should replicate America’s own developmental experience; (2) faith in private free enterprise;(3) support for free and open access for trade and investm ent; (4) promotion of free flow of information and culture and (5) growing acceptance of governmental activity to protect private enterprise and to stimulate and regulate American participation in international economic and cultural exchange.(p. 7) These major tenets of American ideology were inculcated in the spirit and operation of each American foreign policy move. Whether it is annexation of Philippines or colonization of Cuba, these ideological parameters were at the helm of the affairs. Furthermore, this American mission to extend and export these ideological patterns universally worked under two motives. Religious zeal to spread the American version of Christianity with basic features of American socio-economic standards worked closely with secular and liberal intelligentsia.Evangelical sectors of American life thought that Christianity was a prerequisite for modernization. So missionaries spread American ideals to different parts of the world. Secular sections of American in telligentsia were of the view that national advancements and global progress are the manifestation of a single dream i. e. to propagate American ideology. Rosenberg (1982) asserts that it was the â€Å"economic needs, Anglo-Saxon mission, and the progressive impulse† that worked together with government endeavor to set an expansionist agenda and one of the motives for these designs was the spread of American ideology worldwide.Although there were differences over the question how to propagate Americanization but all these seems converging on a single point that means do not matter and it is all about ends i. e. universalizing the American values. (Hunt, 1987) Acquisition of Philippines; Acquisition of Philippines in the later part of 1890s generated much controversy across America over the issue. The nation was divided into two opposing groups i. e. imperialists and anti-imperialists.The imperialists favored the annexation due to their worldview based on ground realties and p ractical necessities while anti-imperialists preferred to base their stand on idealistic and nostalgic views of mythic American past. Imperialist was of the view that in the changing world scenario, America should change it isolationist agenda and must assess its strength against the imperial powers of Europe in the international arena. The spirit of Manifest Destiny subsisted, and imperialists hankered after to expand the American authority and influence overseas.Their international view was further reinforced by the political, economic and strategic necessities. The anti-imperialists considered the annexation Philippines as an apparent violation of cherished American ideals and political traditions. The imperialist viewpoint can be located by having an in-depth look at the ideas and worldviews of â€Å"the five who created the first genuine American imperialism† i. e. John Hay, secretary of state under McKinley and Roosevelt, Alfred T.Mahan, a naval officer and military ana lyst; Elihu Root, secretary of war under McKinley and Roosevelt, and was responsible for the management of the Philippines and Cuba; Henry Cabot Lodge, the conniving senator from Massachusetts, and Theodore Roosevelt. (Zimmermann X) These paragons of American imperialism considered that in the changing international political scenario, America should not reside in a policy of isolation but must establish its foothold on various strategically important locations. The ultimate goal of this policy might not be territorial gains but it should be strategic monopoly of the international politics and commerce.They further reinforced the idea that it is a defining moment in the way America is linked to the world. It will provide â€Å"Americans and their leaders self-confidence, a sense of their own power, and an abiding belief that they could shape international life according to their values. † (Zimmerman I) In addition to these broad concerns, economic gains through the annexation of Philippines further shaped the worldview of the imperialists. President was moved by the â€Å"touchstone of Asian trade† (RTAP 52) and economic motives served a proper background for President McKinley’s resolution to annex the islands.â€Å"His [McKinley’s] object was not a colonial empire but the minimum territory needed to obtain conquest of world markets, along with taking of strategic points necessary to protect the conquest. † (RTAP 52) Acting secretary of States William R. Day and Massachusetts’ Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge considered that the surpluses produced by American factories require huge markets especially China. They were further influenced by Brooks Adams theory of center of money exchanges with a conception that now United States is in a position to capture the world economy and rule it.Brooks Adam further said, â€Å"We must have new markets unless we would be visited by declines in wages and by great industrial di sturbances, of which signs have not been lacking. The old theory of competing in foreign markets merely by the price of production is no longer predictable. † So a â€Å"navy, coaling stations and ports in the East†¦have become essential condition in our times† (RTAP 53) Beside the expansionist design and economic necessities, another factor that contributed to hold the entire archipelago under America was military necessity.After attaining military victories in the islands, it was inappropriate to vacate it for other powers to fight over it. It was a commonly held belief among imperialist that by placing â€Å"A protectorate seemed unsuitable, since it would place heavy duties on the United States without supplying enough authority to carry them out† and â€Å"Most American believed that freeing the islands would result in internal chaos followed by a German, British, or Japanese takeover†¦No country made a serious attempt to deny the Philippines to U nited States, but at least four might have collided headlong if Washington turned them loose†¦.†(RTAP 48) The anti-imperialist worldview was based on sentimental and traditional values of the past. Mostly, it was comprised of ethical and moral issues, America’s anti-colonial origin and past, its democratic traditions and cherished ideals of liberty and freedom. This altruistic viewpoint was further founded in the fear that these imperialist practices would erode the traditional political fabric of America and would violate the cherished American ideals.Yet for all their passion, the enemies of the new imperialism seemed old-fashioned and out of touch. They looked back to a mythic American past, while Roosevelt and his friends laid claim to a bountiful future†¦the anti-imperialists were on the losing end of historical change. (Zimmermann VIII) Additionally, anti-imperialists American worldview was molded by humanitarian and racial issues and anti-imperialists d enounced that like African American, the Filipinos would be treated the same way and would be negated the basic human rights provisions.This perspective was further supported by feminist stance that identified Filipinos as the American women â€Å"who are governed without their consent† (RTAP 55) Some racial views suggested that assimilation of Philippines Eastern society would harm the social fabric of American society and would have negative effects on the future prospects of American social development. The imperialist position was based on concrete ground realities.Their basic agenda was expansionism or â€Å"Americanism (as Roosevelt put it) but it also included the latent political, economic and strategic advantages for America whereas anti-imperialist worldview was grounded in outmoded idealism of the past. Imperialist viewpoint had more practical and beneficial motivation to annex Philippines as Republican Senator Lodge said in the senate, â€Å"the enormous materia l benefits to our trade, our industries, and our labor dependant upon a right settlement of this question† (RTAP 54) Due this imperialist worldview, since 1898, America's role in the world changed forever.A country that had restricted her power and influence to the western hemisphere suddenly obtained a â€Å"global reach that it would never relinquish† (Zimmerman I) This clearly manifested that American annexation of Philippines were motivated by a combination of various factor in which economic necessities and spreading of American dream i. e. to Americanize the peninsula were the chief objectives. Spanish-American War: Spanish-American was another important geo-strategic enterprise that marked the emergence of U. S.as an important international player. Though war marked the beginning of American Imperialism, but war itself was not caused by the imperialist or expansionist designs of Americans. † The war†, as Prof. Blum puts it, â€Å"grew out of the depl orable conditions in Cuba and seems intolerable to an aroused popular sentiments in the United States. †(Blum, p. 502) Another reno3wned historian Samuel Morison consider this exercise a totally emotional enterprise and says, â€Å"no war was ever more or emotional and less economic in motives† (Morison, 1982.p. 801) But his assertion on another occasion seems appropriate as it depicts that American exercise was purely based on their cherished ideals of democracy and liberty. He says, â€Å"This was a closer and more personal war to Americans than either world war; and was their own little war for liberty and democracy against all that tyrannical, treacherous, and fetid in the Old World†. (p. 802) America found an apt time and place to exercise their ideological patterns.At last the nation distinguished manifested itself as a major world power and tried to play a vital role in the broad international arrangements for the fist time. It consciously became one of th e tutors of the backward nation. Under such pro-consuls as General Leonard Wood, it tried to implant their own ideology in Cuban soil and undertook huge task of psychological and material reformation, reorganizations and development in Cuba. Rosenberg says that General Wood â€Å"vowed to create a polity ‘molded closely upon lines of our great Republic.’ Wood brought in a host of experts to reshape Cuba. Americans assumed direction of customhouses (the major source of government revenue), controlled the country’s finances, organized a postal service, established telephone and telegraphic lines, encouraged railroads and shipping facilities, built road, carried out sanitation projects†¦established schools†¦and invited New York City Police to organize their counterparts in Havana. † (p. 46) All these measures were intended to Americanize the socio-cultural and economic spheres, both at the ideological and material levels.Rosenberg further says that â€Å"Cuba thus became a laboratory for methods of influence that fell short of outright colonialism†. (p. 47) But history manifested that outright colonialism and subjugation of other nation is an outdated phenomenon. Furthermore, direct colonialization and annexation produced resentment and sentiments of hatred among the dominated nation. So it was a not a suitable mechanism to spread the American dreams and its various ideological expressions. So American spirit for exporting their cherished ideals devised new means to have control on the other geographical territories and to mold their society on American pattern.One of such mechanisms was Howard Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy. Taft wad enthusiastic about the military preparedness as his predecessor Roosevelt was. He therefore used the level of American investments to boost American diplomacy. Fearing the designs of Japan in China, Taft believed that if not checked Japan would not only seize the entire North China but als o freeze out American trade in the Far East. Consequently, he supported the construction of American financed railroads in Manchuria with a view to checkmate the Japanese and to preserve the ‘Open Door’ in China.He encouraged the bankers to invest their surplus in foreign areas of strategic importance to the United States, especially in the Far East and the regions that might menace the Panama Canal. He feared hat if the American investors would not come forward, investors from rival powers like Germany would make the necessary investments and gain control over the seas. But as the American capital have never been interested in making investments in Manchuria, the State Department even brought pressure on the reluctant banks to invest in this region.This new policy of Dollar diplomacy that substituted dollars for bullets was complete violation of the liberal ideological tenets of freedom of investment. Furthermore this dollar diplomacy was prompted by strategic and impe rialist concerns i. e. to check the rapidly growing power of Japan in China instead of promotional objectives. (Nearing and Freeman, 1925) This clearly manifest that sometime during the period 1890-1945, some strategic and defense objective overweighed the higher objective of spreading American ideology abroad and creating a new socio-economic world milieu based on American ideals.Post World War I Foreign policy and it correlation with Nationalist ideology; A case Study of Germany: During World War I, United States was deeply involved in the affairs of the world and allied won he victory mainly due to the support of men, money and materials they got from United States. But after the war ended, most of the American people started feeling that it was folly on their part to have entered the war because in return for what America gave to the allies, she received nothing.Consequently there was a rethinking about the foreign policy. In the meanwhile Republicans came to power in America an d enunciated a new policy. Harding, the Republican President said about the new foreign policy; â€Å"We seek no part in directing the destinies of the world†¦we are ready to associate ourselves with the nations of the world, great and small, for conference and counsel, for suggestions of mediations, conciliation and arbitration; but every commitment must be made in the exercise of our national sovereignty.† (Harding, 1923) It would be wrong to attribute this policy of United States as a policy of isolationism or diversion from the American mission of promoting their national ideology abroad. It can more appropriately be described as the policy of ‘cooperation without entangling alliances. ’ This was due to the fact that new subtle and profound international mechanisms were available that can capacitate America to act as a promotional state.A South American writer, Manuel Ugarte has identified the change in American policy in these words; â€Å"The United S tates†¦ inaugurated the system of annexing wealth, apart from inhabitants or territories, disdaining outward shows in order to arrive at the essentials of domination without a dead-weight of areas to administrate and multitudes to govern†¦ (Manuel Ugarte, 1923). Economic activity was one such subtle mechanism that enabled America to spread its ideology of free trade and capitalistic mode of world commercial activity.Peace was an ultimate requirement for this mechanism to work. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover speech about the American economic activity as a tool of American foreign policy provides an important assessment abut the directions pf American foreign policy. â€Å"By contributing to peace and economic stability, by the loan of our surplus savings abroad for productive purposes, by the spread f interventions over the world, we can contribute to the elevation of standards of living in foreign countries in their relations to each other. (U. S Department of Comm erce, 1926)At the time of assuming office as president, Harding announced that the league issue was â€Å"dead as slavery† and his administration would not lead United States into the League of Nations â€Å"by the side door, back door or cellar door†. Yet in spite of these pronouncements Hardinge as well as Coolidge were compelled to involve their country more deeply into the world arena than ever before. But this time their involvement was on a more subtle and economic level. The first such involvement was in the affairs of Europe when it concluded a peace treaty with Germany.As United States has failed to ratify the treaty of Versailles, she was legally speaking still at war with Germany. In July 1921, Congress passed a resolution by which peace was declared. By this treaty America showed its willingness to pay for the German property seized during the war. This was a subtle move as leaving Germany in a state of devastation would had resulted in bad consequences for America and its ideological and strategic objectives in the region. Bolshevik Russia was a logical choice for Germany if American would have created a vacuum.This meant that instead of ideals of liberalism, democracy and free trade, socialism and close-economy would had have encircled the German economy and socio-cultural life. Frank Costigliola (1984) says in this regard; Pacifying and rebuilding Germany was integral to containing the Bolshevik revolution†¦ Bolshevik Russia represented both a symbolic and a substantive threat to the peaceful change alternative. Most American leaders viewed the Soviet Union as revolution incarnate, despite Moscow’s caution and conservatism.If Germany’s political and economic structure collapsed, its people, American feared, might in desperation forged a Russian alliance to overthrow both Versailles and capitalism. Their very opposition to revolution led Hoover, Hughes, and other American leaders to combat the French policy of rig idly enforcing Versailles, which would only build up pressures for change†¦ (p. 96) So resolution of conflicts with Germany, provision of financial, technological and material help to uplift the German socio-economic spheres were imperative for Americans.Although these were motivated by certain strategic and political goals but ideological consideration acted as underlying theme in the whole process. This is the reason that Hughes appealed to private experts and economists to come with new strategies and theoretical framework to help Germany in its economic turmoil. Export of popular American culture through various means also helped America to spread its influences and ideology abroad. One manifestation of this soft power i. e. American culture was its film industry. It helped greatly to promote the American ideology abroad and also had effect on trade.Edward G. Lowry as early as 1925 recognized â€Å"this new factor in the international relationships that has caused the flut ter† (Lowry, 1925. p. 12) Costigliola is of the view that war weary generation of the West looked toward technologically advanced America for cultural models and America offered â€Å"its own institutions and values, or what contemporaries termed Americanism† (p. 98) America colonized the European through their soft power especially Films and tried to inculcate their own ideological patterns in the spirit and minds of Europeans.All these evidence and arguments clearly manifest that although American foreign relation was marked with political necessities and economic concerns but ideological underpinning remained an ultimate objective. The political and economic inevitabilities were also manifestation of these ideological underpinnings For example, to influence free trade was a material expression of liberalism that originated from public-private partnership in the American history.American concerns in Philippines, Cuba and post World War I apprehensions in Germany was a l amalgam of ideological requirement with geo-strategic obligations but it is also a fact that Dollar Diplomacy in Taft’s era in China was solely motivated by political needs. But all these method, use of military and non-military means, acquisition of territories, participation in world economic markets, internationalization of American culture, disarmaments agreement, all were to construct a new world order according to American ideological patterns.South American writer, Manuel Ugarte has rightly summed up the whole phenomenon in these words; The flexibility of North American imperialism in its external activities, and the diverse forms which it adopts according to the circumstances, the racial composition and social conditions of the people upon which its action is exercised, is one of the most significant phenomenon of this century;†¦(p. 139) References Blum, John Morton. The National Experience. San Diego : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1985. Connor, William P.United States annexation of the Philippines: a reinterpretation. [Kingston] University of Rhode Island. 1972 Edward G. Lowry. Trade Follows the Film. Saturday Evening Post. 198. (November, 1925) 12-13. Frank Costigliola. U. S. Cultural Exapsion in an Era of Systematic Upheaval in Major Problems in American Foreign: documents and essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Harding, Warren G. Inaugural Address. (March 4, 1921) available at Avalon Project, Yale Law School. Website Hughes.Debt and German Reparations: Hughes Calls on Private Experts for Help, 1922 in Major Problems in American Foreign Relations. Hunt, Michael. Ideology and U. S. Foreign Policy. Yale University Press; 1988. Manuel Ugarte. The Destiny of a Continent. Catherine A. Phillips (tr. ). New York. Knopf. 1925. Merrill, Dennis & Paterson, Thomas G. Major problems in American foreign relations: documents and essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Morison, Samuel E. The Oxford History of American People. New York, Oxford Unive rsity Press. 1965. Nearing, Scott& Freeman, Joseph.Dollar diplomacy; a study in American imperialism. New York, B. W. Huebsch and the Viking Press. 1925. Rosenberg, Emily S. & Foner, Eric. Spreading the American Dream. New York : Hill and Wang, 1982. U. S. Department of Commerce. in Major Problems in American Foreign: documents and essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Volker, Karren & Zola, Jaye. The annexation of the Philippines, Denver, CO : Center for Teaching International Relations, 1999. Zimmermann,Warren. â€Å"Jingoes, goo-goos, and the rise of America's empire. † The Wilson Quarterly 22. Spring 1998.

The Characteristics of Ielts Essay Writing Band 9 Samples

The Characteristics of Ielts Essay Writing Band 9 Samples Ielts Essay Writing Band 9 Samples Options Looking at IELTS essay topics with answers is a superb means that will help you to get ready for the test. In addition, I have a comprehensive lesson on IELTS problem solution essays which you might discover useful. Following current topics utilised in 2017 is crucial for success in IELTS. There haven't been any substantial changes to IELTS essay topics in the past several decades. The War Against Ielts Essay Writing Band 9 Samples Actually, acquiring an idea about the the latest IELTS Essays has a competitive advantage as it gives someone an idea about the sort of essays he might expect in his exam on the 1 hand, and boost his preparation on the opposite hand. This essay requires a look at each side of the argument. A well-structured essay has an excellent introduction, body paragraphs that are simple to follow and connect with each other, and a great conclusion. This is just what you should do to help it become clear to the examiner what you consider the question and also enables them to stick to the remainder of your essay. These IELTS sample essays are categorised in a manner that makes it simple for you to observe how certain essay question types ask that you supply certain responses to be sure the question is completely answered. If you believe you need over three words your answer is most likely incorrect. Examine the model essay and read the comments. We will make a generalized discussion of how you've got to get ready for the ielts writing task 2 for the academic edition. You must take care of the tone if it's format letter keep the formal tone otherwise informal tone. The tone plays an important role as well as other important aspects that give rise to the band score of writing task 1. Top Ielts Essay Writing Band 9 Samples Secrets Having access to previously completed work you can have confidence in will show you exactly wh at you're missing. A friend has agreed to look after your home and pet while you're on holiday. Unfortunately, it seems that she already obtained the exact same watch fromher friend on such day and thus does not have any demand for the one I bought for her. Spending plenty of time looking for ielts info. Although this option brings with it attractive advantages, additionally, it has somepotential drawbacks that have to be considered. Some folks believe that we ought to use traditional strategies to address our problems, others say that we ought to use modern approaches. Both versions are written through an expert ielts trainer. Finally, why it's happening and how it's affecting you or other individuals. Certainly, money has an important role in our lives. Certainly, it is an important part in our lives. Hence, it's said, marry for money is right in some degree. Thus, the expression, marry for money looks appropriate, in some degree, at least. Furthermore, it's a norm that over-indulgent parents are lenient and do not need children to face the effects of their misbehaviour. It's hard for any persons to accept a partner who doesn't have money or no less than a job to care for their upcoming family. It's hard for any persons to accept a partner that does not have money or no less than a job to look after future family. There are several smart scientists who don't have the funds to acquire important info to finish their research. It may be more effective if politicians put education, in place of punishment, at the middle of a recycling campaign. Some people believe that schools need to be more entertaining, but others feel that their only goal is to be educated. Other people think education will not operate. Academic Task 1 gives you the ability to demonstrate you could understand visual data and importantly, which you can describe it into a manner that demonstrates this understanding. Type 2 questions are like the brief answer questions in they will inform you to compose your answers in NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS. However, REMEMBER even when you are in possession of a strong view, it is beneficial to demonstrate the reader you have at least thought about the opposing side. The variety of grammatical constructions used seems quite excellent. An intriguing mixture of complex grammar structures will also need to be produced. You've used cohesion in a manner that attracts no attention. On the flip side, it's obvious that the disadvantages of nuclear technology are significant both when it comes to weaponry and as a power supply.

Adolf Hitler - World War II - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 760 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/06/18 Category People Essay Level High school Tags: Adolf Hitler Essay World War 2 Essay Did you like this example? In the world War II Adolf Hitler was the horror able killing leader and greatest racist man in the World. He is also known as a bad man for world history because he turned into world war. The reason he killed people of their thought or what they believe in his country in Germany. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Adolf Hitler World War II" essay for you Create order He was keep going emphasis his ideology called Nazi Ideology all over world. Attacking small country like Poland, Austria and doing same thing again. Adolf Hitler was born on 1889 in Branau in a small Austrian town and his father was retired a state customs official. Hes most of his childhood he spent on Austria. After his dad died in 1903 he began struggling in school and finally dropped out and keeps going fulfill his dream of being an artist but he got rejected from Viennas Academy of fine Arts. Five years later his mother died Hitler moved to Vienna and living painting scenery and selling the images and increase his interest in politics and developing his many ideas that would Nazi Ideology. In 1913, Adolf Hitler joint in battle during the war when World War I broke down and he was great warrior that he won two decorations of bravery which wore his life. For instance, he was wounded twice his life during the war first one hit was in his leg when he was Battle of the Somme and other one in 1918 temporarily blinded by a British Gas attack. In late 1918, Hitler returned to the military and assigned to spy on political parties he found a party which was the German Workers Party. After enrolling this party later on he made it a largest political party in the Germany and become well-known Nazi Party. In 1921he become a strong leader of the Nazi Party and bring down the German Republic and lake himself the dictator on Germany. After getting the power he abolished the freedom of speech and ordered the murder who did not agree with his ideology specially for the Jews people, first started cut all benefit they were getting than stop allowing to do any kinds of business as well as financial support from bank. Day by day It dictatorship on Jews people was getting harder and harder during the time they were struggling and could not get any jobs because of theirs believes. In 1935 September made a law which German Blood and Honor was passed which banned the intermarrying of German and Jews. The Reich Citizenship Law decreed that all Jews, No Matter What percentage, were no longer Citizen of their own country that means they had no basic civil Rights such as vote. Banning children going to normal school and banned all professional jobs, education, higher education and industry almost all sector. Adolf Hitler started holocaust which is increasing the power like discriminatory treatment of the Jews. Only the Jews people are suffering that but also Gypsies, Homosexuals, Jehovahs and disabled for persecution. Around 11 million people were killed during the holocaust and 6 million were Jews. Moreover, He started Concentration camps which become Adolf Hitler largest Na zi concentration and death camps the name was Auschwitz. It was a horrible murder like telling them going to works and need to take shower in large room but it was killed system many people together by gas. The reason of using that gas was killed quickly and once everybody in the room was dead special prisoners task was remove those bodies into crematoria. It was the world horrific camps in the history which made by Adolf Hitler. There are some staff he did those people early 1940s, during the WWII such as Medical Experiments which was the large number of prisoners by Nazi concentration camps. Tropically the medical experiment result was dead or permanent disability and disfigurement. After that his indented was to control outside like Austria, Poland, Norway and Demark. Controlling those countries brought the World War II. Over the two years fighting alliance with Italy, and Japan, Austria moved to Czechoslovakia when Adolf Hitler signed non- aggression pact with Soviet Union finally Britain and France to declare war on Germany. When Japa nese attacked American military and destroy American Ships like fleet Pearl Harbor attack on Dec 7, 1941. Four days later United States declaration war on Japan Empire, but Nazi Germany declares war on United States. When USA entered the world against Japan and Germany in 1945 was the end of his dictatorship in Germany. When USA and Russian army together attacked against Adolf Hitler main city he committed suicide by shooting himself on April 30 in Berlin bunker.