Establish the purpose and usefulness of a professional portfolio Assignment

Establish the purpose and usefulness of a professional portfolio. Establish the components of your professional portfolio - Assignment Example The most challenging steps in the four-step job process are the preparation and planning stages (Ferrett, 2002). These are considered challenging because it requires discerning one’s professional goals and a determination of genuine interests in a wide range of employment opportunities. Likewise, one’s strengths and even weaknesses have to be accurately assessed, acknowledged and addressed prior to confirming application in intended fields of endeavor. On the other hand, under the planning stage, it would initially be difficult to create one’s schedule of activities and incorporate them in current and future plans. As emphasized, the implementation of this step requires commitment and determination; especially in creating schedules of interviews, following up applications, returning and responding to call or correspondences, as required. Villanova University. (n.d.). The Professional Portfolio: A Guide for Preparing the Final Product. Retrieved from homepage.villanova.edu:

Corporate Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Corporate Communications - Essay Example When all of the divisions have their own communications strategy and there is no overall corporate guideline on communications, it is hard to control communications functions, especially when the company is multinational. Sara Lee Corporation is trying to find the balance between centralized control of communications and the development of communications strategies at the local level, many other multinationals are having the same struggle. The major point is to bring all of the communications professionals from marketing, public relations and internal communications into a single department so that the knowledge can be shared, the experience enhanced and the visibility of communications sector within the company ensured (p. 127). Such cross-functional integration over and above departments is needed because most of the work related to communications cuts across different knowledge and skills domains. In addition, the communications within the company are mostly informal (p. ... ations are separate), while under horizontal structure there is no clear line of subordination and each department has a unique function and undertakes the portion of company's overall mission. Moreover, under the vertical structure the corporate communication is placed high within the company and involves the formal collaboration. As it was mentioned on the page 133, the survey of the 75 largest US corporations has proved that the vast majority of these companies have communications and marketing departments functioning on the same level (the horizontal structure). The same tendency is observed in UK and European companies. Therefore, the communications function is divided into two major fields -direct communication (such as employee communication, corporate design, all internal and media communications) and direct marketing (such as branding and advertising). It is worth to note that this division is not always appropriate for the small business units because the communications function is not developed so well and involves fewer specialists compared to the internationals such as Sara Lee Corporation. Moreover, the preferred interdependence and at the same times sovereignty of two departments reflects their importance to the company. Even though the tendency to divide communications function within the compa ny, there are some exclusions. For example, in the Netherlands the communications disciplines are consolidated in a single department with high position within the company. Sara Lee Corporations tensions are quite traditional for the majority of multinationals. There is the need to separate central communication departments from marketing because some of the communication areas fall outside the operational. For example, marketing has to deal with

Low Cost Solar Water Desalination Environmental Sciences Essay

Low Cost Solar Water Desalination Environmental Sciences Essay Abstract- This research paper covers different types of low cost solar water desalination techniques. This paper also describes methods for solar water desalination process at large scale with less cost. Keywords- solar water desalination, sea-water desalination, brackish water desalination, low cost water desalination, water purification. Introduction Our world consists of 97.2% water but this water is not in useable form.[1] This water can be usable if it gets purify. Purification of sea water is very costly task. This paper describes methods to reduce cost of this purification process which are currently used by different countries. Solar water desalination Water desalination is the process in which we purify seawater or brackish water and make it useable. Solar water desalination is the process in which we purify seawater or brackish water through solar energy and make it useable for drinking. Fig. 1 Solar water desalination process[2] Ambient energy system Working In this system, energy required for condenser and evaporator is generated through solar panels. This technology is suitable for model villages. The basic idea in this technology is that fix the solar panels on the roof of each house. Connect these panels with heat pump that generates electricity. This heat pump is then connected to the evaporator and condenser. Sea water is then pumped in evaporator and condenser. After this process we get fresh water that can be stored in tank. Fig. 2 Ambient energy system for water desalination.[3] Cost This system is implemented in most of the countries. Its average cost is US$ 1.8/m3.[3] SOLAR STILL PLATE DISTILLATION Working This method can commonly be use at home as shown in fig.3. In this method, flat solar still is used. This system is not suitable for large amount of desalination. As you can see in fig.3 in which fresh water is getting store in a glass. In this process water is passed through the surface of flat solar still and by sunlight these plates get heated and then water get boil. This water is store from the lower side of solar still. One 120 cm long and 60 cm wide with a collector area of 0.7 Sq. m solar still plate can desalinate 2.5 3.5 litres of water in a day. 4 solar still can purify 10 12 litres of water in a day which is enough for single family. Cost This desalination process is very cheap and its cost is Rs.300 per litre production.[4] Fig.3 Flat plate solar distillation[4] Simple sea water desalination plant Working In this system, spherical shaped tank is used which is made up of solid glass. firstly connect spherical tank and reservoir tank through pipe. Connect the top of the reservoir tank with the cooling system so that vapours can again convert into liquid state. Cooling system is not necessary; it depends on the temperature of surrounding area. The working of this process is that fill the spherical tank with sea water. Filled spherical tank behaves like a big, solid and powerful convex lens. This convex lens will focus on a single point with its specific alignment to the sunlight. Water will get boil after some time because of continuous heating. Then water will change its state from liquid to vapour state. These vapours will move towards the reservoir tank and the cooling system at the top of reservoir tank will again change the state of water from vapour to liquid. This liquid is purified water and can be use for daily purposes. Fig.4 Simple sea water desalination[5] Cost The cost of this system depends on the size of sphere. The sphere with capacity of storing 5 litres water is costs Rs. 1500.[5] CONCLUSION These are the different techniques that can be used for low cost water desalination. As far as reduction in infrastructure cost, PVC pipes can be used instead of cement pipes. It is clear from the study that ambient energy can be used for water desalination in temperate climates. In hotter countries where there is more solar energy available, the potential for using the technology to produce low-cost desalination systems is even more significant. Solar still plate distillation process can be build at the roofs of the houses. Like windmill at the roof of house, this desalination process will work fine. Simple sea water desalination plant is also suitable for hot areas as it also requires sunlight to boil the water.

Quiz Show Essay -- essays research papers

Charles Van Doren has a life that many people would be envious of. He is a member of one of the country’s most intellectual and well respected families. His uncle, Carl, is a noted historian and his father, Mark, is a distinguished professor at Columbia University as well as Pulitzer-prize winning poet. Even his mother, Dorothy, is a well known author with several highly recognized pieces of literature. Charles is following in his father’s footsteps as he works as an instructor at Columbia preparing to take over for his father once he retires. Unfortunately for Van Doren, he feels that he lacks an identity in this family of overachievers. At this point in his life, he believes that he should have accomplished enough that people don’t have to refer to him as â€Å"the son† but rather address him by his name. Clearly Van Doren doesn’t realize how fortunate he is and that compared to nearly all the men in America, he is still more of a success than an y of them will ever be. This insecurity and tragic flaw will ultimately lead to his demise over the course of the film. The question becomes not whether or not this tragic hero will do anything to gain the spotlight that his relatives have gained but rather to what extent will he be willing to compromise his values in the process. The second scene of the film displays the seemingly secure process in which the questions for the show are taken to the studio. They are taken from a vault at the bank by police officers and there is a large procession that hand delivers the questions to the studio. It makes the viewer think that the whole quiz show thing is completely fraud-free. The camera then shows how such shows have captivated audiences around the country. Everyone wants to be a part of the phenomenon of quiz shows even if it means simply watching the show on television from their home. The audience ranges from couples to families to even nuns. Yet the corruption is shown very early in the show as an executive makes a phone call to inform a producer that they want to get rid of the current winner on the show, Herbert Stempel, because he is getting tired of him. Stempel, who is a working class Jewish man from Queens, NY, has had an amazing run on the quiz show â€Å"Twenty-One†. He has won a great deal of money and is milking the glory for all it’s worth. When he returns to his modest neighborhood, he is treated like a king;... ...es almost shocked, saying that, â€Å"I wanted to get television; the truth is television is going to get us†. Goodwin is quite vague and leaves this line for the viewer to interpret. Perhaps he means that television holds the power to ruin lives of even those who are the least likely to be morally seduced by it. Charles Van Doren’s life is completely tragic as in his attempt to better his life he ends up making it worse than when he started â€Å"Twenty-One†. The money he made and the fame that he achieved could have been accomplished through hard work and determination like his father. He was driven by the opportunity to practically do nothing and be credited as a hero. In a way though, Van Doren is successful, as his ultimate goal is to be more than his father’s son, but unfortunately he obtained notoriety rather than honored distinction. Dick Goodwin is the antithesis of Charlie, a man who could look temptation in the eye and simply turn away, knowing that simply giving in is completely wrong. Who knows what Charles Van Doren’s life could have been if he had stayed on the path that he was on rather than succumbing to the temptations of easy fortune and fame that came with â€Å"Twenty-One†.

Last Sacrifice Chapter Thirty-two

SYDNEY AND HER FRIENDS weren't happy that we weren't going to take them with us. â€Å"I would,' I told her, still reeling from what I'd learned from Ian. â€Å"But getting us in and out has been hard enough! If we step outside with you, we'll all be busted. Besides, soon it won't matter. Once we tell everyone at Court what we know and clear my name, the guardians won't need you anymore.' â€Å"It's not the guardians I'm worried about,' she replied. She used that blase tone of hers, but I could see a glint of legitimate fear in her eyes–and I wondered who she was referring to. The Alchemists? Or someone else? â€Å"Sydney,' I said hesitantly, despite knowing Mikhail and I needed to get out of there. â€Å"What did Abe really do for you? There has to be more than just the transfer.' Sydney gave me a small, sad smile. â€Å"It doesn't matter, Rose. I'll deal with whatever comes. Just go now, okay? Go help your friends.' I wanted to say more †¦ to find out more. But Mikhail's expression told me he agreed with her, and so, with brief farewells, he and I left. When we got back to where the others were waiting in the parking lot, I saw the situation hadn't changed much. Dimitri was pacing, no doubt restless at being out of the action. Jill still stood near Sonya, as though seeking protection from the older woman, and Adrian stayed away from all of them, barely sparing a glance when Mikhail's car pulled up. When we told the group what we'd learned, however, that got a reaction from Adrian. â€Å"Impossible. I can't believe that.' He stamped out a cigarette. â€Å"Your Alchemist pals are wrong.' I could hardly believe it either, yet I had no reason to think Ian would lie. And honestly, if Adrian was having a hard time with this, there was no telling what he would have thought if we'd told him who our previous suspect was. I stared off into the night, trying to come to terms with who had murdered Tatiana and framed me. It was hard even for me to believe. Betrayal was harsh. â€Å"The motives are there †¦' I said reluctantly. Once Ian had described whom he'd seen, a dozen reasons for the murder clicked into place. â€Å"And they arepolitical. Ambrose was right.' â€Å"Ian's ID is hard evidence,' said Dimitri, as shocked as the rest of us. â€Å"But there are a lot of other holes, a lot of pieces that don't fit into it.' â€Å"Yeah.' One in particular had been bothering me. â€Å"Like why I was set up for the fall.' No one had an answer for that. â€Å"We need to get back to Court,' Mikhail said at last. â€Å"Or I'm going to be missed.' I cast Jill what I hoped was an encouraging smile. â€Å"And you've got to make your debut.' â€Å"I don't know which is crazier,' said Adrian. â€Å"The killer's identity or Jailbait being a Dragomir.' His words to me were cold, but the look he gave her was gentle. Crazy as the news was, Adrian hadn't had that hard of a time believing Jill's parentage. He was jaded enough to believe in Eric's infidelity, and those telltale eyes sealed the deal. I think hearing what Ian had told us was hurting Adrian more than he was letting on. Finding out the person responsible for his aunt's murder was someone he knew had to intensify the pain. Finding out about me and Dimitri couldn't help matters either. Much to Mikhail's dismay, Sonya offered to stay behind while the rest of us went to Court. We couldn't bring both cars, and his only held five. She considered herself the least useful in this endeavor. With much hugging, kissing, and tears, she promised Mikhail they'd see each other again, once this mess was sorted out. I hoped she was right. My charm would obscure my face enough to get me through the gate. But Jill was a trickier problem. Her kidnapping was hot Moroi news, and if she was recognized by any of the gate guardians, we would be stopped then and there. We were gambling that the guards would be too harried to notice her like they would Dimitri and me. That meant Dimitri took priority for disguising–requiring Adrian's help. Adrian wasn't quite as adept with illusion as Sonya was, but he understood enough of it to make Dimitri's appearance altered to the eyes of others. It was similar to how he'd used spirit during my jail escape. The question was whether or not Adrian would actually do it for us. He hadn't said a word to anyone about what he'd seen between me and Dimitri, but the others must have felt the sudden rise in tension. â€Å"We have to help Lissa,' I told him, when he didn't respond to the request. â€Å"Time's running out. Please. Please help us.' I wasn't above groveling, if that was what he needed. Fortunately, it wasn't. Adrian took a deep breath and closed his eyes for a brief moment. I was certain he wished he had something stronger than cigarettes. At last, he nodded. â€Å"Let's go.' We left Sonya with the keys to the second car, and she stood there with shining eyes, watching as we drove off. Dimitri, Mikhail, and I spent most of the journey analyzing the our data collection. The woman Ian had described couldn't have done everything we'd been pinning on the murderer. I was sitting in the backseat with Adrian and Jill, leaning forward and checking things off on my fingers. â€Å"Motive? Yes. Ability? Yes. Paying off Joe? Yes. Access to Tatiana's chambers †¦' I frowned, suddenly thinking of what I'd overheard while with Lissa. â€Å"Yes.' This earned me a surprised glance from Dimitri. â€Å"Really? That was one piece I couldn't figure out.' â€Å"Pretty sure I know how she did it,' I said. â€Å"But the anonymous letter to Tatiana doesn't make sense. Not to mention obscuring Lissa's family–or trying to kill her.' Or trying to frame me. â€Å"We might be dealing with more than one person,' said Dimitri. â€Å"Like a conspiracy?' I asked, startled. He shook his head. â€Å"No, I mean, someone else had a grudge against the queen. But not someone who'd go as far as to kill her. Two people, two agendas. Probably not even aware of each other. We're mixing up the evidence.' I fell silent, turning over his words. It made sense, and I picked up on the nuance that by someone, he meant Daniella. We'd been right about reasons she'd dislike Tatiana– the trainings, the age law not being hardcore enough, encouraging spirit †¦ But that hadn't been enough for murder. An angry letter, bribery for her son's safety? Those were the kinds of actions Lady Daniella Ivashkov took. Not staking. In the ensuing silence, I heard soft words between Jill and Adrian, who'd been having a conversation while the rest of us plotted strategy. â€Å"What do I do?' Jill asked him in a small voice. His answer was swift and sure. â€Å"Act like you deserve to be there. Don't let them intimidate you.' â€Å"What about Lissa? What's she going to think of me?' Adrian hesitated only a moment. â€Å"Doesn't matter. Just act the way I told you.' My stomach sank, listening to him give her such earnest, kind advice. Rowdy, smug, and flippant †¦ he was all those things. But his heart was good. The heart I'd just broken. I knew I was right about his potential. Adrian was great. He could do great things. I just hoped I hadn't set him back. At least I hadn't had to tell him his mother was a murderer †¦ but still. All of us grew quiet when we reached the gate. The line of cars was still there, and we became more and more nervous as we crept forward. A flip to Lissa's mind told me we weren't missing anything in the Council. The chaotic situation was pretty much the same as before, though the exasperated look on Nathan's face made me think he'd call a close to proceedings soon and continue tomorrow. I wasn't sure if that was good or bad. The guardians recognized Mikhail, of course, and while still vigilant, their initial instincts didn't suspect him of nefarious deeds. He vaguely said he'd been sent to pick up some people. The guardian looking in the car scanned over Dimitri, me, and– thankfully–Jill. Adrian, a well-known figure, got us added respect. After a mandatory check of the trunk, we were sent on through. â€Å"Oh my God. It worked,' I breathed, as Mikhail drove over to the guardians' parking area. â€Å"Now what?' asked Jill. â€Å"Now we reestablish the Dragomir line and call out a murderer,' I said. â€Å"Oh, is that all?' Adrian's sarcasm was palpable. â€Å"You know,' remarked Mikhail, â€Å"that the instant your illusions are dropped, you two are going to be jumped by guardians and thrown back into jail. Or worse.' Dimitri and I exchanged looks. â€Å"We know,' I said, trying to ignore the memories of that terrible, claustrophobic experience. â€Å"But if everything works out †¦ we won't have to stay there for long. They'll use what we've found out and then eventually set us free.' I sounded more optimistic than I felt. Once parked, our party headed toward the ballroom's building, which could have been seen miles away with all the people around it. How strange. Not long ago, I'd made this same journey, with nearly the same people, hurrying away from Court. We'd worn spirit disguises then, too, and had been seeking escape. Now we were knowingly walking into peril. I was convinced if I could make it in undetected and deliver my news, everything would work out. Sonya's charm had worked perfectly when I saw the Alchemists. I had no reason to doubt it, but the fear still lurked in the back of my mind: what if it stopped functioning? What if the disguise failed and I was spotted before even getting into the building? Would they arrest me? Or would they simply shoot first? The doors were barred to spectators, but guardians were allowed access, so once again Mikhail talked us in–using a sullen Adrian as the reason. The late queen's nephew could hardly be refused, and with the chaos inside, more guardians–which Dimitri and I appeared to be–were welcome. Adrian kept an arm around Jill as they entered, and the guardians let her pass. We slipped into the ballroom, completely unnoticed. I'd seen the arguing through Lissa's eyes, but it was totally different in person. Louder. More grating. My friends and I exchanged looks. I'd braced myself for a big confrontation with the audience–hell, it wouldn't be the first time–but this was a test of even my skills. â€Å"We need someone to get the room's attention,' I said. â€Å"Someone not afraid to make a spectacle–I mean, besides me, of course.' â€Å"Mikhail? Where have you been?' We turned and saw Abe standing before us. â€Å"Well, speak of the devil,' I said. â€Å"Exactly what we need.' Abe peered at me and frowned. Charms could be seen through when others knew one was being used. Charms were also less effective if others knew the wearer well. It was how Victor had recognized me in Tarasov. Sonya's was too strong for Abe to fully break through, but he could tell something wasn't right. â€Å"What's going on?' he demanded. â€Å"The usual, old man,' I replied cheerily. â€Å"Danger, insane plans †¦ you know, the stuff that runs in our family.' He squinted his eyes again, still unable to fully see through the charm. I was probably blurry. â€Å"Rose? Is that you? Where have you been?' â€Å"We need the room's attention,' I said. I wondered if this was what it felt like when parents busted their kids for breaking curfew. He looked very disapproving. â€Å"We've got a way to settle this whole argument.' â€Å"Well,' observed Adrian dryly, â€Å"we've at least got a way to start another one.' â€Å"I trusted you at my hearing,' I told Abe. â€Å"Can't you trust me now?' Abe's expression turned wry. â€Å"You apparently didn't trust me enough to stay put in West Virginia.' â€Å"Technicalities,' I said. â€Å"Please. We need this.' â€Å"And we're short on time,' added Dimitri. Abe studied him too. â€Å"Let me guess. Belikov?' There was uncertainty in my father's voice–Adrian was doing a good job in keeping the illusion over Dimitri–but Abe was clever enough to deduce who would be with me. â€Å"Dad, we have to hurry. We've got the killer–and we've got Lissa's †¦' How did I explain it? â€Å"A chance to change Lissa's life.' Not much startled Abe, but I think my earnest use of â€Å"Dad' did. Scanning the room, his eyes landed on someone, and he gave a small jerk of his head. Several seconds later, my mother squeezed her way through to us. Great. He called; she came. They were awfully chummy lately. I hoped Lissa remained the only one with a surprise sibling. â€Å"Who are these people?' my mother asked. â€Å"Guess,' replied Abe flatly. â€Å"Who would be foolish enough to break into Court after escaping it?' My mom's eyes widened. â€Å"How–‘ â€Å"No time,' Abe said. The sharp look he got in return said she didn't like being interrupted. Maybe no siblings after all. â€Å"I have a feeling half the guardians in this room are going to be all over us soon. Are you ready for that?' My poor, law-abiding mother looked pained, realizing what was being asked of her. â€Å"Yes.' â€Å"Me too,' added Mikhail. Abe studied us all. â€Å"I guess there are worse odds.' He headed up to where Nathan Ivashkov was leaning against his podium. He looked weary and defeated–and utterly at a loss on what to do with the mess before him. At our approach, the monarch candidates glanced over curiously, and I sensed a sudden jolt of surprise through the bond. Lissa could see right through the spirit charms. I felt her breath catch at the sight of us. Fear, shock, and relief played through her. And confusion, of course. She was so glad to see us that she forgot all about the elections and started to stand at our approach. I gave her a quick shake of my head, urging her to keep our cover, and after a moment's hesitation, she sat back down. She was worried and puzzled–but trusted me. Nathan came to life when he saw us, particularly when Abe simply shoved him out of the way and grabbed the microphone. â€Å"Hey, what are you–‘ I expected Abe to yell for everyone to shut up or something like that. Of course, Nathan had been trying that for a while with no results. So, I was quite shocked–as was everyone else–when Abe put fingers to his lips and let out the most ear-piercing whistle I had ever heard. A whistle like that through a microphone? Yeah. It hurt my ears. It had to be worse for the Moroi, and the screeching feedback in the speakers didn't help. The room quieted enough for him to be heard. â€Å"Now that you have the sense to keep your mouths shut,' said Abe, â€Å"we have †¦ some things to say.' He was using his confident, I-control-the-world voice, but I knew he was taking a lot on faith here. â€Å"Act fast,' he muttered, extending the microphone out to us. I took it and cleared my throat. â€Å"We're here to, uh, settle this debate once and for all.' That brought grumbles, and I hurried on loudly before the room erupted again. â€Å"The laws can stay the way they are. Vasilisa Dragomir is entitled to her Council vote–and eligible to be a full candidate for the throne. There's another member in her family. She isn't the only Dragomir left.' Murmurs and whispers broke out, though it was nothing like the roar earlier–most likely because the Moroi loved intrigue, and they had to know how this would play out. In my periphery, I could see guardians forming a very loose perimeter around us. Their concern was security, not scandal. I beckoned Jill forward. For a moment, she froze; then I wondered if she recalled Adrian's words in the car. She stepped beside me, so pale that I worried she might pass out. I almost felt like I could too. The tension and pressure were overwhelming. No. I'd come too far. â€Å"This is Jillian Mastrano Dragomir. She's Eric Dragomir's illegitimate daughter–but she is his daughter and officially part of the bloodline.' I hated usingillegitimate, but in this case, it was a necessary fact. In the heartbeat of silence that followed, Jill hastily leaned toward me and the microphone. â€Å"I am a Dragomir,' she said clearly, despite her trembling hands. â€Å"Our family has its quorum, and my s-sister has all her rights.' I could see another explosion building, and Abe jumped in between Jill and me, grabbing the microphone. â€Å"For those who don't believe this, a DNA test will clear up any doubts about her lineage.' I had to admire Abe's audacity. He had only learned this information sixty seconds ago and was already advocating it with certainty, as though he himself had performed the necessary tests back in his home genetics lab. More faith–and an advantage he couldn't pass up. My old man loved secrets. The news triggered the reaction I'd expected. Once the audience had processed the information, a flurry of shouted commentary began. â€Å"Eric Dragomir didn't have any other children, illegitimate or not!' â€Å"This is a scam!' â€Å"Show us the proof! Where are your tests?' â€Å"Well †¦ he was kind of a flirt †¦' â€Å"He did have another daughter.' That last one shut the crowd up, both because it was spoken with authority and because it came from Daniella Ivashkov. She had stood up, and even without a microphone, she had a voice that could carry in a room. She was also an important enough person in our society to draw attention. Many among the royals were practically conditioned to listen to her. In the now quiet room, Daniella continued speaking. â€Å"Eric Dragomir had an illegitimate daughter, with a woman named Emily Mastrano–a dancer, if I recall correctly. He wanted it kept secret and needed certain things done– things he couldn't do himself–to help with that. I was one of the few who helped.' An uncharacteristically bitter smile turned up her lips. â€Å"And honestly, I wouldn't have minded it staying secret either.' Pieces clicked in my head. I knew now who had broken into the Alchemists' records. And why. In the room's silence, I didn't need a microphone to respond either. â€Å"Enough that you'd make certain papers disappear.' Daniella fixed that smile on me. â€Å"Yes.' â€Å"Because if the Dragomirs faded, spirit might too. And Adrian would be safe. Spirit was getting too much attention too fast, and you needed to get rid of any evidence about Jill to kill Vasilisa's credibility.' Daniella's expression confirmed as much. I should have left it at that, but my curiosity wouldn't allow it. â€Å"Then why admit it now?' Daniella shrugged. â€Å"Because you're right. One DNA test will show the truth.' There were gasps of awe from those who took her word as gospel and wondered what this meant. Others people refused to believe and wore looks of scorn. Daniella, undoubtedly disappointed the truth had leaked, nonetheless seemed resigned and willing to accept it. But her smile soon dropped as she studied me more closely. â€Å"What I'd like to know is: who in the world are you?' A good portion of the audience appeared to want to know this as well. I hesitated. Sonya's charmed disguise had gotten me pretty far at this point. We had a fragile acceptance of Jill and the Dragomir line. If we let the system run its course, and if Lissa won like I now wanted–I'd have a queenly advocate to help in the case to clear me. But staring at the crowd–full of people I'd known and respected and who had still condemned me without question–I felt anger burn within me. Spirit-induced or not, it didn't matter. I was still outraged at how easily I'd been accused and tossed away. I didn't want to wait for this to be settled in some quiet guardian office. I wanted to face them. I wanted them to know I was innocent–of killing the queen, at least. And so, surpassing my own records for dangerous, reckless behavior, I ripped off Sonya's bracelet. â€Å"I'm Rose Hathaway.'

The Industrial Giant Known as America

Many factors led to America having a tremendous rise in industry. The five points that made the most impact were technology, mass distribution and production, education, railroads, management ideas and structure, and immigrant labor. These five points not only improved the existing industry, but they revolutionized how the American industry would be run for the next generation. As with any change in an existing system, there were a few problems, the main problems where with workers so management just replaced them with machines. Many people weren†t ready to make the adjustment from small town arming to big city living but the benefits far out-weighed any unusual situations, so the people and the nation when along with it. In the 1850†³s and on, most Americans were wondering about the benefit of a society dominated by cities, factories, and masses of wage earners. Along with cities and factories, pollution, and unhygienic situations was rising as well. Industrializing of the nation was wanted by many people but on the other hand, many people did not want to see the nation industrialize. The United States, at this point, mostly an agricultural society, nd most of the people lived on farms or in small towns, and had lots of open space to live in. These caused a slowing of the United States transforming into a industrial nation. Depression set and there was unrest in the work force. This began to change in the 1870†³s when the Populist Party gained a strong foothold. In 1897, the economic depression finally came to an end. In 1910, the United States firming planted itself as the world†s Probably the most important feature aiding the nation†s growth was technology. Two major inventions during this period were the invention of the gasoline-powered, nternal combustion engine and harnessing of electric power. Harnessing electrical power opened many doors for technological advancements. The cheaper and cleaner electrical power allowed for longer working days and easier working day for the laborers. Metal-working went right hand in hand with electric generators and related equipment. In 1878 the first gas engine was patented. This was responsible for the first production of the Model-T, the nations first automobile made by Henry Ford. Millions of people bought the Model-T, and that in turn called for millions of pounds of steel ,glass, rubber, etroleum, and other materials viable materials to be produced. This called for millions of jobs in coal and iron-ore mining, oil refinery, steel making, rubber manufacturing, machine tooling, and service stations. These and many other jobs led to corporations and new jobs Management of business is the next issue. The number of managers grew, as elaborate corporate hierarchies deformed both the tasks and status of individual managers. Day to day operations were replaced by middle managers, who oversaw a single department in corporate headquarters. This rapid expansion within corporate managerial ranks created a new middle class. They were loyal to their employers, but were at odds with both the blue-color workers, and with the older middle class of shopkeepers. Also small businessmen, an independent craftsmen were not too happy with the idea of this also. With all of this happening, there was a growing need to ship goods, which in turn led to a major need for the railroads. The next factor that helped the industrial growth was immigrant labor. Immigrant labor constituted about 70% of all the labor in the twentieth century. Immigrants built the nation†s tunnels and railroads , mined iron ore, coal and other minerals. They stoked the hot steel furnaces on the trains and in steel factories also. In the railroad industry was where the immigrants really made their mark. Immigrants worked long hours because really they were all of the early work force so they built much of the early railroad and were in on most of its matinence. Domestic markets were growing at such a enormous rate, manufacturers had to improve on mass-production. To speed up production, they needed to lower the cost of ll shipped items. This often meant that most workers were replaced by machines. Aside from an occasional matinence the machines worked cheaply. Also, manufacturers often found that distribution systems need to be revamped. This led to specialized sale forces, and on-going customer service. Duke who started a regional sales offices, made it so that his saleman could keep in touch with local retailers. This helped manufacturers tap into what the public wanted in turn keeping sales high. Duke also started national advertising which was a huge success. Duke was the father of advertisers of early industry. Many factors helped contribute to the growth of the nation†s industry. The five emphasized are the main factors that contributed the most to improvements in the industry. The improvements not only changed not only in increased revenue, but also in the way people lived their daily lives. The adjustment from small town, rural living and farming to big city living and urbanization led to some conflict of ideas among early workers. Other conflict of interest in business also surfaced as everyone wanted the get there hand in the money.

Skeletal System essays

Skeletal System essays 1. Your skeletal system is important because some, like your backbone, provide the structure which enables you to stand erect instead of lying like a puddle on the floor. Other bones protect the delicate, and sometimes soft, insides of your body. Your skull, a series of fused bones, acts like a hard protective helmet for your brain. The bones, or vertebrae, of your spinal column surround your spinal cord, a complex bundle of nerves. Imagine what could happen to your heart and lungs without the protective armor of your rib cage. When you were born you had over 300 bones. As you grew, some of these bones began to fuse together. The result? An adult has only 206 bones. Babies have more bones because they need to grow and over time the bones will fuse together to make you bigger. We need calcium to bake our bone grow and become stronger. We can get it through the food that we eat. 3. The femur is the longest bone in your body and is located in your thigh. The stirrup bone is the smallest bone in your body, it is located behind your eardrum. most of your bones are located in your wrists and hands. 4. If humans didnt have bones they would be a puddle of mush and we wouldnt be able to move. Bones have two purposes. Some, like your backbone, provide the structure which enables you to stand erect instead of lying like a puddle on the floor. Other bones protect the delicate, and sometimes soft, insides of your body. Your skull, a series of fused bones, acts like a hard protective helmet for your brain. The bones, or vertebrae, of your spinal column surround your spinal cord, a complex bundle of nerves. You need muscles to pull on bones so that you can move. Along with muscles and joints, bones are responsible for you being able to move. Your muscles are attached to bones. When muscles contract, the bones to which they are attached act as levers and cause various body parts to move. Yes ...

Free Essays on Going Fishing

â€Å"Wake up, wake up!† My cousin told me. I looked at my watch to see what time it was. It was 4:00 in the morning. I got dressed and met my cousin Mike outside my tent. It was a cold day in the mountains in Colorado. As we grab are rods and reels I recommend we eat breakfast. My cousin Agrees after a bowl of cereal we head out. We stop at the truck to get the salmon eggs we are using for bait. We start about a quarter of a mile walk to lake. After what seems like thirty minutes we finally make it to the lake. We still have about an hour till the sunrise. We go to the spot where we think we will catch some fish. We bait our hooks with the orange salmon eggs that we are hoping will catch us a few rainbow trout. We cast our line out to the middle of the small lake. My cousin is the first to get a bite and to the first to real in a trout. As my cousin puts the fish on the stringer I catch one. My fish put a good fight. We both cast out lines once a again. We wait for about 15 minutes then my cousin pulls back on his fishing at about the same time I do. My cousin comments, â€Å"Our lines have to tangled or something.† AS we reeled in our lines we found they were not tangle, but that we both had fish. We both put our fish on the stringer on the stringer. About five minutes later I notes that the stringer is not tied around the rock, but that it is about ten feet from the shoreline. Its all most if the fish got up and Walked away like a child but stumble and could not get back up. Mike decides to go into the water to get the stringer. He wades into to the cold water to his knees. When he gets back to shore we decide that that is enough fishing for now. We walk back to the camp. When we get to camp we clean and cook the fish. We have the fish for lunch .... Free Essays on Going Fishing Free Essays on Going Fishing â€Å"Wake up, wake up!† My cousin told me. I looked at my watch to see what time it was. It was 4:00 in the morning. I got dressed and met my cousin Mike outside my tent. It was a cold day in the mountains in Colorado. As we grab are rods and reels I recommend we eat breakfast. My cousin Agrees after a bowl of cereal we head out. We stop at the truck to get the salmon eggs we are using for bait. We start about a quarter of a mile walk to lake. After what seems like thirty minutes we finally make it to the lake. We still have about an hour till the sunrise. We go to the spot where we think we will catch some fish. We bait our hooks with the orange salmon eggs that we are hoping will catch us a few rainbow trout. We cast our line out to the middle of the small lake. My cousin is the first to get a bite and to the first to real in a trout. As my cousin puts the fish on the stringer I catch one. My fish put a good fight. We both cast out lines once a again. We wait for about 15 minutes then my cousin pulls back on his fishing at about the same time I do. My cousin comments, â€Å"Our lines have to tangled or something.† AS we reeled in our lines we found they were not tangle, but that we both had fish. We both put our fish on the stringer on the stringer. About five minutes later I notes that the stringer is not tied around the rock, but that it is about ten feet from the shoreline. Its all most if the fish got up and Walked away like a child but stumble and could not get back up. Mike decides to go into the water to get the stringer. He wades into to the cold water to his knees. When he gets back to shore we decide that that is enough fishing for now. We walk back to the camp. When we get to camp we clean and cook the fish. We have the fish for lunch ....

Solving Common Typing Problems

Solving Common Typing Problems Theres nothing like typing away on a paper, only to find that youre not actually typing what you thought you were typing! There are several problems you can encounter with a keyboard that can drive you nuts, especially if youre on a deadline. Dont panic! The solution is probably painless. Some Letters Wont Type Sometimes a tiny piece of debris can get stuck under a few of your keys. If you find that a certain letter won’t type, you may be able to fix the problem by using a compressed air duster and gently blowing off your keys. Buttons Are Sticking Keyboards get very dirty sometimes, especially if you have a tendency to snack and type. You can clean a keyboard yourself (laptop or desktop), but it may be safer to have it cleaned by a professional. Numbers Wont Type There is a numbers lock button near your keypad that turns the pad on and off. If your numbers won’t type, you’ve probably pressed this button by mistake. Letters Are Typing Numbers It can be scary to type words and see nothing but numbers appearing! This is probably an easy fix, but the solution is  different for every type of laptop. The problem is you have numlock turned on, so you need to turn it off. This is sometimes done by pressing the FN key and the NUMLOCK key at the same time. Typing Over Letters If you are editing a document and are surprised to find that you are suddenly typing over words instead of inserting between words, you have accidentally pressed the Insert button. Just press it again. That key is an either/or function, so depressing it once causes it to insert text, and pressing it again causes it to replace text. Cursor Is Jumping This is one of the most frustrating problems of all, and it seems to be related to using a laptop with Vista or Windows XP. One possible solution is adjusting your touchpad settings. Secondly, you could disable tapping during input. To find this option with XP, go to: Control panelMouseAdvancedAdvanced feature settingsTapping and feature settingsTapping settingsDisable tapping If this doesn’t work, you can try installing Touchfreeze, a utility developed to disable your touchpad while you are typing text. Text Disappears Mysteriously If you accidentally highlight a block of text and type any letter, you replace all the selected when you type. This can happen in an instant, often without even noticing it. If you find that a lot of your text has disappeared, try hitting the undo function several times to see if your text reappears. If not, you can always hit redo to get back to where you started. Keyboard Keys Arent Functioning This isnt a common issue, but when it happens, either some or all keys stop working  or certain features of the keyboard such as backlighting may stop working. This can result from a low battery, so try plugging the computer in. It can also result in form liquid in the keyboard, causing the keys to short out.  Use compressed air between the keys and let the keyboard sit to dry for a while. Try using it again after it has dried  completely.

Ecological Modernization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ecological Modernization - Essay Example It is a new approach that makes the society become more concerned with the environment issues that are affecting it. It is a new approach that is aimed at making the world have a new outlook at how it can integrate the modern technology not only in meeting g its n needs but also in meeting the needs of the environment as well. This new approach is taking place in several spheres including the changing role of science and technology, increasing important of marketing dynamics and various economical agents, the transformation in the role of the nation and state, modification in the new position and ideology of social movement in the society, and the changing discursive practices with integration to the new emerging ideologies. (Fisher and Freudenburg, 2001) There are many ways in which the concept of ecological modernization can be applied in the modern world and as far as we deal with the environment and the need to advance in technology. There are many supporters of the concept who have argued that the rationale behind the ecological Modernization is the need to develop in all aspects of the life. In this regard, the society needs to develop economically and socially and at the same time take care of the environment. What have been happenings in the world has acted as a wake up call to the whole world on the need to be conscious to the needs of the environment. In this regard, there is need for the world to become more focused on the changes that are taking place in the environment. The theory of ecological modernization assume that there are some way in which the world cause the modern technological in order to help to reduce consumption of the resource and at the same time increase efficiency in the use of resources. In this regard it calls for a change in the production process to be focused on reducing wastage of resource using some means like waste recycling and others. This has been one of the positions of the industrial ecology which has taken the concept of using the raw material sparingly in order to enhance sustainable development. (Cahill, 2002) Therefore one of the most important aspects of this theory is that the support needed to have sustainable development. As defined by the United Nations, sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present generation but in a way that it does not compromise the ability of the future generations to meet their needs as well. Therefore it postulates that we are guardians of the world for the future generation. In this regard we have to use the resources that we have in a sparingly manner so that we can enhance the ability of the future generation to meet their needs from the same resource. Ecological modernization calls for the use of modern technology in a way that it will help use to use our resources and at the same time help the future generation to use the same recourses. One of the strength in the development of the theory has been the support that the theory has been receiving from the civil societies. In this regard the rise of the civil society has been one of the most important factors that has enable the growth for the theory. This has been due to that fact that the civil

Roman Civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Roman Civilization - Essay Example In addition, military leaders won considerable popularity among the people by their impressive victories and opposition to traditional senatorial government. The most telling examples of how an influential leader could ascend to the pinnacle of power, pushing into the background the other political institutions, are Marius with his 7 consulates, Sulla, eventually becoming a dictator, unlimited by time or by law; Crassus and Pompey, repeatedly achieving their consulate, and, finally, Caesar. The reform of the army, which became a fundamentally important aspect of Roman history started at about 107 BC during the war between Rome and the Numidian king Jugurtha. This war got a particularly scandalous publicity, since the enemy was so shamelessly bribing the senators that the decline of their authority led to the fact that the Roman army came under the command of Gaius Marius. To combat a powerful enemy for the first time in the history of Rome access to the army of volunteers was opened regardless of social class (the landless, impoverished city dwellers, etc.). Service in the army turned from an honorable duty into a profitable profession; soldiers received salary and were promised land. Organization of the army was improved (Marius introduced division of the legions to cohorts, each consisting of 3 maniples of 200 people), as well as command in general, technical equipment, etc. As a result, the Roman Republic got a well-organized professional army. On the other hand the army has turned into an independent social force with its own interests, needs and requirements. Military reform has laid the conditions for the extreme increase in power of individual military chiefs, as opposed to the weakening of central authorities, which lost the competence in military sphere, and along with it power functions: The acceptance into the army of persons who had few and eventually no roots in the State would have demoralizing consequences, and enable the generals of the first ce ntury to use their armies as though they were their own (Smith 63). Due to the elevation of individual political figures the inevitable structural changes took place in the state apparatus. In particular, a number of extraordinary and ordinary magistrates appeared which have received incomparable power. The role of a military leader increased manifold; and such leader was able to use the army as a weapon in the struggle for power in the state. As the first example of this we can consider the consulates of Gaius Marius, which were received in absentia, contrary to the republican tradition, almost continuously: in 107 and since 104 to 100 BC. Other examples include series of extraordinary powers given to Pompey since 78 to 52 BC, when he got an institutionalized by the Senate sole authority over the state. The anti-Senate forces, led by Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, known as the first triumvirate depended greatly on the army. Probably, the strongest influence of the army displayed itsel f in the civil war. The war that began in 49 BC was caused exclusively by the ambitions of the colonial emperor and his troops; though â€Å"Caesar stressed throughout the willingness of his troops to support his cause† (Keppie 103) it was not justified by any social or political programs. This was the conflict between the pretenders, each of whom found

Predictive Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Predictive Policing - Essay Example By making use of information technology through implementation of COMPSTAT, police departments are able to cut costs in their daily operations. In the past, police officers often used to make random patrols which would cost more to the departments since they had no prior knowledge of possible crime zones. Information technology has, therefore, made it possible to cut down costs by mapping out crime zones where police officers would make their patrols from (McDonald, 2002). It has been reported by police departments such as the New York City Police Department that information technology such as COMPSTAT has significantly improved performance of the organization through accountability at different departments in the organization. Each department is assigned with particular task and with the help of information technology; weak links or poor performance can easily be detected within the organization. Quick identification of crime coupled with prompt and creative solutions has enabled many police departments to perform better in recent years. Information technology has enable police officer to respond swiftly to crime through monitoring and evaluation of crime statistics of a given neighborhood or region. Creative solutions such as early detection or preventive measure have significantly improved their performance. Despite these numerous gains brought by the use of information technology, there are other setbacks that come along with it. Random patrols for instance, would be effective in situations where new crime zones develop. The use COMPSTAT places emphasis on known crime zones, leaving out other parts unpatrolled. In such an event, COMPSTAT would perform very poorly in determining patrol routes. Unless new data is introduced into the system, patrols by police based on COMPSTAT would be definite hence predictable. This means that criminals can easily predict patrol routes of police officers due to the predetermined route of patrol. In such

Case study on reducing customer churn fir T-Mobile Essay

Case study on reducing customer churn fir T-Mobile - Essay Example The rule was further enhanced by Sherden as 20-80-30 expressing the idea that the top 20 percent of customers generate 80 percent of the companys profits, half of which is lost serving the bottom 30 percent of the unprofitable customers (Sherden, 1994). Customer retention has become harder with the propagation of internet and increased bandwidth. Provision of several options has made the switching barriers ineffective. In order to keep the customer base in the safety net it is important for the company to fill all the loops and holes to avoid customer leakages. It is always important for the Telecommunication companies to find new and innovative ways of finding about the factors, which lead to the customer defection. It is also imperative for the company to create a connection with the customers being at high risk of defection and reduce the overall churn rate. It is important to tie the above mentioned segments in the loyalty string of the company. An automated survey query can be sent to the customers through email or the survey can be directly undertaken by sending an automated call to the specific numbers of the target audiences in order to get instant response from the customers on daily basis form both the segments of Pay Monthly and Pay as You Go customers. The survey then can be reviewed by the customer care staff so that call centre representatives can purposefully undertake conversation with the customer providing negative feedback. On the next level the customer should be provided with the opportunity to again fill a brief survey form. If again the feedback is negative the customer should be asked if they would like to speak with a manager regarding their issue(s). Managers should be notified of the customer call-back requests on urgent basis. The data regarding the customer’s survey responses should also be provided to t he manager in order to undertake useful follow up with the customers. The loss of the customers can be

Food and Drink in Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Food and Drink in Society - Essay Example The availability, choice, and cheapness of food that the free market has brought about means that we have become accustomed to eating what we want, when we want, how we want- with little to no thought about the consequences of our consumption patterns. This has been encouraged and designed by a political and economic system that is profit- orientated rather than social or environmentally orientated. Traditionally food was farmed, sold, cooked and eaten in a very different way. As global capitalism has shaped our lifestyles it has also affected how we eat. Since the 1970 ´s there has been a huge explosion in fast food outlets providing cheap, colorful food leading to problems of obesity in countries that have embraced the fast food culture- â€Å" it seems wherever Americas fast food chains go, waistlines inevitably start expanding† (Eric Schlosser, 242). However in the last few years there has been a public reaction and rejection of the fast food culture. The Slow Movement set up in 1989 is one such example â€Å"to counteract fast food and fast life, the disappearance of local food traditions and peoples dwindling interest in the food they eat, where it comes from, how it tastes and how our food choices affect the rest of the world.† (Slow Food Movement, Homepage) There are signs that there is a return to historical food and drink choices, with the popularity of farmers markets, organic food sales increasing â€Å"The value of the market increased by an average of 16 per cent a year between 2003 and 2008† (Daily Telegraph) and celebrity chefs such as Gordon Ramsey extolling the virtues of eating seasonal, British food. Recent trends in food consumption point to a clear return to traditional and historical ways of eating, slower, local and healthier! In the UK we have seen the merging of many different cultures, British society is made up of a huge variety of cultures each bringing with them their own food revelation. The culture of food is often shaped by the

Advance managerial accounting Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Advance managerial accounting Report - Essay Example This implies that data turns into information for purposes of making decisions. In the same way, Ferrara’s article â€Å"21st Century Paradigm,† the focus is on cost especially concerning industrial engineering. When Ferrara says that the volume of activity is still a problem as fixed costs grow depending on variable costs, the main point is that profitability is dependent costs. Just like Drucker, Ferrara proposes that costs affect the number of products. This is what he refers to as activity costing. In the two articles, authors clearly bring out the issue of marginal changes ignoring the impact of accounting. Data, therefore, is imperative in the two cases for continuous improvement like cutting down on the selling over a period. At the final stage, Drucker and Ferrara establish that information is crucial in any accounting system, whereby it should deal with the two issues of assigning costs between and within product lines. The next articles as well focus on utilizing costs to make decisions. Cooper and Kaplan, for instance, examine how important products are critical in controlling the costs within the market. They, at first, agree with Ferrara that costs are becoming less variable. This implies that they are the dependent factors transferring products to be independent. Cooper and Kaplan reveal that most costs change depending on the shift and diversity of products within the economy as opposed to the number of products produced (Kaplan and Atkinson 2). With reference to what Drucker tries to bring to surface on accounting systems and information, Cooper and Kaplan tend to agree with him that conventional accounting systems make more products appear more expensive than they really are. The clearest point that brings all the articles together is that management decisions vary depending on the number of product complexity as opposed to the amount. Cooper and Kaplan as well

Food and Drink in Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Food and Drink in Society - Essay Example The availability, choice, and cheapness of food that the free market has brought about means that we have become accustomed to eating what we want, when we want, how we want- with little to no thought about the consequences of our consumption patterns. This has been encouraged and designed by a political and economic system that is profit- orientated rather than social or environmentally orientated. Traditionally food was farmed, sold, cooked and eaten in a very different way. As global capitalism has shaped our lifestyles it has also affected how we eat. Since the 1970 ´s there has been a huge explosion in fast food outlets providing cheap, colorful food leading to problems of obesity in countries that have embraced the fast food culture- â€Å" it seems wherever Americas fast food chains go, waistlines inevitably start expanding† (Eric Schlosser, 242). However in the last few years there has been a public reaction and rejection of the fast food culture. The Slow Movement set up in 1989 is one such example â€Å"to counteract fast food and fast life, the disappearance of local food traditions and peoples dwindling interest in the food they eat, where it comes from, how it tastes and how our food choices affect the rest of the world.† (Slow Food Movement, Homepage) There are signs that there is a return to historical food and drink choices, with the popularity of farmers markets, organic food sales increasing â€Å"The value of the market increased by an average of 16 per cent a year between 2003 and 2008† (Daily Telegraph) and celebrity chefs such as Gordon Ramsey extolling the virtues of eating seasonal, British food. Recent trends in food consumption point to a clear return to traditional and historical ways of eating, slower, local and healthier! In the UK we have seen the merging of many different cultures, British society is made up of a huge variety of cultures each bringing with them their own food revelation. The culture of food is often shaped by the

White Privilege Essay Example for Free

White Privilege Essay In the aftermath of the election victory of Barack Obama, white supremacists rushed to online discussion forums to vent anger and disbelief that voters had chosen an African-American candidate as the next president of the United States. The Anti-Defamation League, which monitors and exposes extremist activity and rhetoric, said anger among white supremacists and other right-wing extremists in response to Obamas victory, resulted in an avalanche of vitriolic ranting postings on racist Web sites. At one point, the chatter so overloaded the server of the most popular white supremacist internet forum, Stormfront, which was temporarily shutdown. The notion that racism is a violation of human rights is not a new one, as those who have experienced it effects would testify. The ground-breaking progress gained by the civil rights movement of the 1960s in the United States has steadily eroded over the past decade, and the issues and incidents of racism as well as anti-Semitism, homophobia, and violence against women are ones that need to be addressed with increasing urgency. While the courts are more and more frequently relying on civil rights laws to prosecute racially motivated violence, the common abuses of basic human rights are often overlooked. In fact, the encroachment of white supremacist ideologies into the social fabric of our politics, our institutions, and our laws means that intolerance 1. is becoming the rule of the day, and the overt violation of the persons and property of individuals and groups is not only easily accepted, but part of the status quo. America has moved into a new era of white supremacy. The new tactics used by white supremacists and far right organizations must be exposed so that we can work together to mitigate their effectiveness. This includes a discussion of the relationship between three converging and ever-growing factionsthe ultra-conservatives, religious fundamentalists, and the far right. In this context, racism cannot stand alone as the sole antagonist of human rights violations. The victims of white supremacist ideologies and politics include immigrants, gays and lesbians, Jews, and women, as well as people of color. From the ranks of homophobes, anti-abortionists, racists, anti-Semites, and those who are simply afraid of a fast-changing world, white supremacists find willing allies in their struggle to control Americas destiny. Hate groups cannot be dismissed as a more complex than the virulence of a few fringe fanatics. With the breathless way the media covers hate groups, it is sometimes easier to characterize them simply as misfits or extremists, rather than acknowledge them as part of the larger problem of widespread racism, anti-Semitism, and homophobia. FBI statistics report that 65 percent of Americas hate crimes are committed by whites against blacks. A good portion of such hate crimes are what we call move-in violence, when neighborhoods, schools, churches, or jobs are finally integrated 2. 30 years after the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Terror over the visibility of the lesbian and gay movement lays behind the numerous hate crimes against gays and lesbians (and their allies) the fastest-growing hate crime category in the country. Some of the haters, living on the United States borders, are petrified at the thought that brown hordes of Mexicans, Chinese, or Haitians may swarm over them if they cease their militant rhetoric and violence toward these immigrants. If they live near Native American reservations, the aim of their violence is to challenge the few remaining treaty rights granted native peoples. Other white supremacists want to save the white race by controlling the behavior of white womenthey attack interracial couples, lesbians, and feminists. They join the anti-abortion movement, believing they can prevent white women from getting legal abortions. Racist far right organizations have been quick to glorify anti-abortion violence, making it yet another hot issue to fuel the fires of the white revolution. Hate groups have decided that they are no longer willing to wait for the white revolution, the violent backlash against human rights movements. They want a fast solution before, as they put it, the white race is extinct. These fanatics are terrorists who use bombs, murder, arson, and assaults in their genocidal war. Some skinheadsfor example, the Fourth Reich Skins arrested a few years ago in Los Angeles or the Aryan National Front, convicted of murdering homeless people in Alabama are in the vanguard of this street-level violence. Meanwhile, older survivalists like Randy Weaver, who was acquitted of killing a federal marshall in an Idaho firefight in 1992, 3.are barricaded in mountain shelters with stockpiles of weapons, awaiting the final Armageddon. Impressionable, often alienated people, both young and old, are natural recruits for this movement. They bring new energy and a willingness to display their hatred aggressively. They also expand the influence of the white supremacist movement, into the anti-abortion movement, into the anti-gay movement, into the English only movement, opening new avenues for the expression of hate. In the 21st century, the image of organized hate is rapidly changing. It is no longer the exclusive domain of white men over 30. It is becoming younger, meaner and more violent. Many people join the movement as teenagers, including a remarkable number of young women. This new and dangerous increase accounts for nearly one-third of the membership of some hate groups. The increase in the number of women, coupled with a strategic thrust to reform the public image of hate groups, has expanded womens leadership. These new recruits do not fit the stereotypical image of wives on their husbands arms. In fact, many of them are college-educated, very sophisticated, and display skills usually found among the rarest of intellectuals in the movement. Of particular concern in this early 21st century is a continuing convergence of sections of the white supremacist movement with the radical Christian Right, as represented by Pat Robertson, and nationalist ultra-conservatives, as represented by the crackpot Tea Party members and conservative Republicans such as Rick Santorum. This alliance is between religious determinists who think that ones degree of Christianity determines one’s future, economic determinists who see themselves in a 4.war of the haves against the have-nots, and biological determinists for whom race is everything. All believe they are in battle to save Western civilization (white Europeans) from the ungodly and the unfit (people of color, gays and lesbians, and Jews). What many Americans fail to realize is that, increasingly, white people are being literally scared out of their wits by demagogues, who crystallize for them their fears of people of color, lesbians and gays, the government, the media, welfare mothers, immigrants, the economy, health care, and the list goes on. The fact that race relations in the United States are usually presented as a black/white model disguises the complexity of color, the brutality of class, and the importance of religion and sexual identity in the construction and practice of white supremacy. This simplistic model, which fails to convey many of the important aspects of white supremacy, cannot specifically explain how white supremacy influences American culture and politics. White supremacy is an ideology that manipulates US politics and affects all relations in American society. It is sustained by rigid ideological categories. The construction of racial categories, although varying greatly over time, has always been based on the economic, social, and political aspirations of people of European descent. Throughout European history, racial definitions have been based on lineage, characteristics, skin hue, and religion. At the present time, there are not safe places for the victims of this type of violence to turn. No homeless shelters, no womens shelters, and often not even 5.police departments offer them support. The first step in building these resources is to recognize the magnitude of the problem so that human rights activists can come together to offer help and support to those outside the majority rule. A concerted, prolonged effort to teach young people about the true impact of white supremacy and its prevalence in American society is fundamental to breaking the cycle. To ignore this issue is to build intolerance into the next generation. An understanding of the historical and institutional effects of racism and the other isms that dominate our culture and society is vital to understanding present bigotry and abuse. In conclusion, when we recognize that racism, homophobia, sexism, anti-Semitism, and xenophobia flow from the same spring, and that they permeate every aspect of the lives of all Americans, we can then take steps together to make the United States a place that respects and honors the dignity of all people. 6. A Childs Tale By Gloria A. Loftin Let me tell you a tale my child of blue and grey of a world gone wild Let me tell you a tale my child of men in hoods and capes of hearts full of rage and hate Let me tell you a tale my child of men of god of greed and wealth Let me tell you a tale my child of peace and hope for all the world Let me tell you a tale my childÃ'Ž

Milling machines: An introduction

Milling machines: An introduction Chapter I 1.1 Introduction The ability of any nation to manufacture is essential but to deploy that ability in a certain nation is the trick as every nation defers from one another, so in order to enhance Arab nation ability to manufacture we will provide a better cheaper design for a CNC milling machine. The Primary Objective of This Project is to present and develop a prototype for a substitution of the expensive hard to acquire machining facility for the Middle East industrial society; these machining facilities include the regular Turning, Drilling, Shaping, Milling, and Grinding Machines. Our primary survey concluded that there always must be a turning machine beside a milling machine, but a milling machine (CNC milling machine) can include the rest of processes required within its operation to a good degree and the turning operation to an acceptable degree. So we chose the milling machine as our initial model to undergo our optimization plan. Therefore our Primary objective of choice is to Design a Basic Three Axis CNC milling machine. Also to manufacture a working Prototype for this machine fabricated all with nationally available components in order to minimize its cost but maintains an acceptable level of accuracy to suite a Computer Numerical Control Machine. Another Thing that we must point out is that in order to accomplish this project we need more than one trial to find the suitable combination of components and specs to pursue in order that this machine comes to light. 1.2 Proposed Approach A new approach is needed that approach is based upon the 2010-2015 World Outlook for Computer Numerical Controls [1]. The results of that survey were mainly based upon word wide research includes Middle East and North Africa. These results showed that any machine tool required for the Egyptian industrial society could be one of the following: Turning, Drilling, Shaping, Milling, and Grinding. So the first step was to pick up the operation over which this thesis will focus on. Milling can include in its operation: Drilling, Shaping, and Grinding. And might contain Turning under certain conditions. So milling was chosen. And this result might be verified by the fact that 90% of the working machine tools in the field of traditional CNC machines are either Milling or Turning Centers. Now we will compare different configuration of milling machines Case 1: A Universal Milling Machine. Case 2: A regular CNC Milling Machine. Case 3: Gantry style CNC Milling Machine. Case 1: A Universal Milling Machine From Cost point of view: Cost is high because of the usage of large material to build the bulky parts of the machine tool might be as high as a CNC Milling Machine From Design point of view: Design level might be considered low compared with the design required in both the regular CNC machine and our machine. From Accuracy Point of view: Accuracy is very low compared to the other two cases but could be difficulty approached with the use of very skilled labor and with high cost. Case 2: A regular CNC machine From Cost Point of view: Cost is much higher because of the usage of both large material amounts with high machining grade as will as the cost of the motion control equipments. From Design Point of view: Design is better than the first case for every part is designed to enhance the entire machining operation. From Accuracy Point of view: Attained accuracy is very high due to perfect guide ways assisted by ball screws along with feed back control. Case 3: A gantry CNC milling machine From Cost Point of view: Cost is mush less than the later case and might be less that the first case as the entire machine is only build from a metal sheet and some Bars. From Design Point of view: Design is much sophisticated than the first and the second case as the design is optimized to hold the predetermined forces as a light weight structure. From Accuracy Point of view: Accuracy is for sure less than the second case but higher than the first case as there is no feedback control technique employed. Discussion of results: For case 1: Universal Milling Machine Our results dont imply that the use of that machine is not appropriate but we only mean that each application requires a certain machine and also each goal. The cost is very high in EGYPT as almost all of them is imported but not made in EGYPT but there maintenance and overhauling is available domestically. For Case 2: three axis CNC milling machine Vertical Column type. The usage of this type of machines in any workshop requires a great deal of money so most of the manufacturers comprises between money and accuracy. The cost is definitely much higher as there is almost no one building or even providing maintenance for these machines in EGYPT. For Case 3: Gantry style CNC milling machine. The usage of this machine is aimed to workshops who would like to get both cheap machining with good accuracy. The cost is very low as of the innovative design of putting the entire axis moving over each other rather than independent from each other as in the regular design of any CNC machine Chapter II Literature Review 2.1 Milling Machine Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a number of cutting edges. The milling machine consists basically of a motor driven spindle, which mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece. 2.1.2 Milling Machine History Unlike lathes, which have been known for thousands of years, milling machines are less than two hundred years old. Because they require much more power than hand-driven lathes, their introduction had to wait for the invention of industrial water and steam power. Also, all their mechanical components had to first be made available, such as accurately fitted slides, large castings to resist cutting forces, calibrated lead screws, and hardened steel cutting tools. Eli Whitney is credited with inventing the first milling machine about 1818, but the knee-and-column support arrangement of the universal milling machine of Joseph A. Brown (later of Brown and Sharpe) dates from 1862 and marks an important step in the machines development. During the last half of the nineteenth Century, milling machines gradually replaced shapers and planers which have lathe-type, single-point tool bits that move over the work in a straight line and scrape off metal one stroke at a time. Milling machines, with their continuous cutting action, not only remove metal faster than shapers and planers, they perform additional operations like cutting helices for gears and twist drills. Today, milling machines greatly outnumber shaping and planning machines. Americans in New England and later the Midwest continuously added features leading to the modern milling machine. Another important development came in the 1930s when Rudolph Bannow and Magnus Wahlstrom brought out the Bridgeport-style vertical milling machine. This design offers versatility and economy in place of the higher metal removal rates of traditional horizontal milling machines. Because of this versatility, there are more Bridgeport-style mills in existence today than any other milling machine design. Horizontal mills are now usually reserved for production applications where high metal removal rates on identical parts are needed, not prototyping and short runs. Bridgeport-style machines are also called knee-and-column machines and turret mills. For production applications, there are large, expensive milling machines with three or more axes under computer control. Some machines perform all operations including automatic tool changing. However, today there is an intermediate step between a manual mill and a fully automated one. Adding a computer, digital readouts, and actuators to the X- and Y-axes of a Bridgeport-style mill does this. Not only can this enhanced machine tirelessly perform all its existing repetitive functions, it also has added new capabilities. Now the mill can engrave (drive the tool to cut numbers and letters in various sizes and fonts), cut radii and angles without a rotary table, make islands, pockets, and cut ellipses, and frames. Entering the position, diameter and number of holes, automates cutting a bolt-hole pattern; the system does the math. The computer can automatically compensate for the reduced diameter of re sharp end milling cutters, saving time and money. The system can be manually programmed through its control panel, use stored programs, â€Å"learn† new tasks by memorizing a series of manual operations as the operator makes the first part, or accept files from CAD programs. 2.1.1 Type of MILLING MACHINES Milling machine are classified on the base of the position of their spindle. The spindle operates in either a vertical or horizontal position or on base of construction. In a following section we represent the different type of milling machine. Column Knee-type Milling Machine Fig 2 machines are characterized by a vertically adjustable worktable resting on a saddle which is supported by a knee. The knee is a massive casting that rides vertically on the milling machine column and can be clamped rigidly to have column in a position where the milling head and milling machine spindle are properly adjusted for operation. The plain vertical column knee type machines are characterized by a spindle located vertically, parallel to the column face, and mounted in a sliding head that can be fed up and down by hand or power. Modern vertical milling machines are designed so the entire head can also swivel to permit working on angular surfaces. The plain horizontal milling machines column contains the drive motor and gearing and a fixed position horizontal milling machine spindle. An adjustable overhead arm containing one or more arbor supports projects forward from the top of the column. The arm and arbor supports are used to stabilize long arbors. Supports can be moved along the overhead arm to support the arbor where support is desired depending on the position of the milling cutter or cutters. UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE The basic difference between a universal milling machine and a plain column knee type milling machine is the addition of table swivel housing between the table and the saddle of the universal machine. This permits the table to swing up to 45 ° in either direction for angular and helical milling operations. The universal machine can be fitted with various attachments such as the indexing fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various special fixtures. RAM-TYPE MILLING MACHINEThe ram-type milling machine is characterized by a spindle mounted to a movable housing on the column to permit positioning the milling cutter forward or rearward in a horizontal plane. Two popular ram-type milling machines are the universal milling machine and the swivel cutter head ram-type milling machine. Gantry Milling Machinefigure 5is simplest construction of milling machine is usually use in CNC machine for cutting wood plastic and light metal Rotary-Table Milling MachinesThese are also called continuous milling machines, as the work picas are set up without stopping the operation. Rotary-table machines are highly productive; consequently, they are frequently used for both batch and mass production. The Work prices being machined are clamped in fixtures installed on the rotating table (2) figure 6. The machines may be equipped with one or two spindle heads (1).When several surfaces are to be machined; the Work pieces are indexed in the fixtures after each complete revolution of the table. The machining cycle provides as many table revolutions as the number of surfaces to be machined. 2.1.2 MILLING CUTTERS The milling cutters are selected for each specified machining duty. The milling cutter may be provided with a hole to be mounted on the arbor of the horizontal milling machines, or provided with a straight or tapered shank for mounting on the vertical or horizontal milling machine. Figure 7 visualizes commonly used milling cutters during their operation. These include the following: Plain milling cutters are either straight or helical ones. Helical milling cutters are preferred for large cutting widths to provide smooth cutting and improved surface quality (Figure 7 a). Plain milling cutters are mainly used on horizontal milling machines. Face milling cutters are used for the production of horizontal (Figure 7 b), vertical (Figure 7 c), or inclined (Figure 7 d) at surfaces. They are used on vertical milling machines, planer type milling machines, and vertical milling machines with the spindle swiveled to the required angle. Side milling cutters are clamped on the arbor of the horizontal milling machine and are used for machining of the vertical surface of a shoulder (Figure 7 e) or cutting a keyway (Figure 7 f). Interlocking (staggered) side mills (Figure 7 g) mounted on the arbor of the horizontal milling machines are intended to cut wide keyways and cavities. Slitting saws (Figure 7 h) are used on horizontal milling machines. Angle milling cutters, used on horizontal milling machines, for the production of longitudinal grooves (Figure 7 I) or for edge chamfering. End mills are tools of a shank type, which can be mounted on vertical milling machines (or directly in the spindle nose of horizontal milling machines). End mills may be employed in machining keyways (Figure 7 j) or vertical surfaces (Figure 7 k). Key-cutters are also of the shank type that can be used on vertical milling machines. They may be used for single-pass milling or multi pass milling operations (Figures 7 l and 7 m). Form-milling cutters are mounted on horizontal milling machines. Form cutters may be either concave as shown in (Figure 7 n) or convex as in Figure (7 o). T-slot cutters are used for milling T-slots and are available in different sizes. The T-slot is machined on a vertical milling machine in two steps: 1-Slotting with end mill (Figure 7 j) 2-Cutting with T-slot cutter (Figure 7 p). Compound milling cutters are mainly used to produce compound surfaces. These cutters realize high productivity and accuracy (Figure 7 q). Inserted tool milling cutters have a main body that is fabricated from tough and less expensive steel. The teeth are made of alloy tool steel, HSS, carbides, ceramics, or cubic boron nitride (CBN) and mechanically attached to the body using set screws and in some cases are brazed. Cutters of this type are confined usually to large-diameter face milling cutters or horizontal milling cutters (Figure 7 q). Gear milling cutters are used for the production of spur and helical gears on vertical or horizontal milling machines (Figures 7 r and 7 s). Gear cutters are form-relieved cutters, which are used to mill contoured surfaces. They are sharpened at the tooth face. Hobbing machines and gear shapers are used to cut gears for mass production and high-accuracy demands. 2.1.3 Milling operation Milling is the removal of metal by feeding the work past a rotating multi toothed cutter. In this operation the material removal rate (MRR) is enhanced as the cutter rotates at a high cutting speed. The surface quality is also improved due to the multi cutting edges of the milling cutter. The action of the milling cutter is totally different from that of a drill or a turning tool. In turning and drilling, the tools are kept continuously in contact with the material to be cut, whereas milling is an intermittent process, as each tooth produces a chip of variable thickness. Milling operations may be classified as peripheral (plain) milling or face (end) milling (Figure 8). In peripheral milling, the cutting occurs by the teeth arranged on the periphery of the milling cutter, and the generated surface is a plane parallel to the cutter axis. Peripheral milling is usually performed on a horizontal milling machine. For this reason, it is sometimes called horizontal milling. The appearance of the surface and also the type of chip formation are affected by the direction of cutter rotation with respect to the movement of the WP. In this regard, two types of peripheral milling are differentiable, namely, up-milling and down-milling. Up-milling is accomplished by rotating the cutter against the direction of the feed of the WP (Figure 9 a). The tooth picks up from the material gradually; that is, the chip starts with no thickness and increases in size as the teeth progress through the cut. This means that the cycle of operation to remove the chip is first a sliding action at the beginning and then a crushing action takes place, which is followed by the actual cutting action. In some metals, up-milling leads to strain hardening of the machined surface, and also to chattering and excessive teeth blunting. Advantages of up-milling include the following: It does not require a backlash eliminator. It is safer in operation (the cutter does not climb on the work). Loads on teeth are acting gradually. Built-up edge (BUE) fragments are absent from the machined surface. The milling cutter is not affected by the sandy or scaly surfaces of the work. Down-Milling is accomplished by rotating the cutter in the direction of the work feed, as shown in Figure 9b. In climb milling, as implied by the name, the milling cutter attempts to climb the WP. Chips are cut to maximum thickness at initial engagement of cutter teeth with the work, and decrease to zero at the end of its engagement. The cutting forces in down milling are directed downward. Down-milling should not be attempted if machines do not have enough rigidity and are not provided with backlash eliminators. Under such circumstances, the cutter climbs up on the WP and the arbor and spindle may be damaged. Advantages of down-milling include the following: Fixtures are simpler and less costly, as cutting forces are acting downward. Flat WPs or plates that cannot be held can be machined by down-milling. Cutter with higher rake angles can be used, which decreases the power requirements. Tool blunting is less likely. Down-milling is characterized by fewer tendencies of chattering and vibration, which leads to improved surface finish. up milling down milling In face milling, the generated surface is at a right angle to the cutter axis. When using cutters of large diameters, it is a good practice to tilt the spindle head slightly at an angle of 13 ° to provide some clearance, which leads to an improved surface finish and eliminate tool blunting. Face milling is usually performed on vertical milling machines; for this reason, the process is called vertical milling, which is more productive than plain milling. 2.2 Computer Numerical Control The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer controller that reads G-code instructions and drives a machine tool, a powered mechanical device typically used to fabricate components by the selective removal of material. CNC does numerically directed interpolation of a cutting tool in the work envelope of a machine. The operating parameters of the CNC can be altered via a software load program. 2.2.1 Historical overview CNC was preceded by NC (Numerically Controlled) machines, which were hard wired and their operating parameters could not be changed. NC was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by John T. Parsons in collaboration with the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory. The first CNC systems used NC style hardware, and the computer was used for the tool compensation calculations and sometimes for editing. Punched tape continued to be used as a medium for transferring G-codes into the controller for many decades after 1950, until it was eventually superseded by RS232 cables, floppy disks, and now is commonly tied directly into plant networks. The files containing the G-codes to be interpreted by the controller are usually saved under the .NC extension. Most shops have their own saving format that matches their ISO certification requirements. The introduction of CNC machines radically changed the manufacturing industry. Curves are as easy to cut as straight lines, complex 3-D structures are relatively easy to produce, and the number of machining steps that required human action has been dramatically reduced. With the increased automation of manufacturing processes with CNC machining, considerable improvements in consistency and quality have been achieved with no strain on the operator. CNC automation reduced the frequency of errors and provided CNC operators with time to perform additional tasks. CNC automation also allows for more flexibility in the way parts are held in the manufacturing process and the time required changing the machine to produce different components. 2.2.2 Production environment A series of CNC machines may be combined into one station, commonly called a cell, to progressively machine a part requiring several operations. CNC machines today are controlled directly from files created by CAM software packages, so that a part or assembly can go directly from design to manufacturing without the need of producing a drafted paper drawing of the manufactured component. In a sense, the CNC machines represent a special segment of industrial robot systems, as they are programmable to perform many kinds of machining operations (within their designed physical limits, like other robotic systems). CNC machines can run over night and over weekends without operator intervention. Error detection features have been developed, giving CNC machines the ability to call the operators mobile phone if it detects that a tool has broken. While the machine is awaiting replacement on the tool, it would run other parts it is already loaded with up to that tool and wait for the operator. T he ever changing intelligence of CNC controllers has dramatically increased job shop cell production. Some machines might even make 1000 parts on a weekend with no operator, checking each part with lasers and sensors. 2.2.3 CNC Components and Control System The two main components of a CNC machine are the machine tool and the machine control unit (MCU). The MCU is the computer that operates the machine tool. There are many manufacturers of these control units, so program codes may vary somewhat between machines. Figure 10 shows three types of control systems for NC and CNC machines. The least expensive type is called a point-to-point (PTP) control system. A PTP control system can only move a tool in a straight line and is limited to hole operations (drilling, boring, reaming, etc.) and spot welding. The tool path between points is not controllable in a PTP system. A straight-cut control system is capable of moving the cutting tools in a straight line between points. However, only one axis drive motor can move at one time, so arcs and angles are not possible. The contouring control system is the most expensive and flexible of the three systems. With the recent advances in electronics, the price difference between these systems has narrowed so much that every CNC machine is now manufactured with a contouring control system. A contouring system is capable of doing what the other systems can do while also being able to cut arcs and angles. 2.2.3 Positioning Formats A CNC program is written using the Cartesian coordinate system. The CNC tool can be moved inside the rectangular coordinates in either two or three dimensions. Lathes are programmed two-dimensionally using only the x- and y-axes, while milling machines are programmed three-dimensionally using the x-, y-, and z-axes. The z-axis is always the axis that determines the depth of cut. The x-axis is parallel to the longest length of the machine table, and the y-axis is parallel to the shortest length of the machine table. CNC programs can be written in one quadrant or four quadrants. CNC machines can be positioned in two ways with respect to the Cartesian coordinate system. They can be positioned in an absolute format or an incremental format. In the absolute format, all machine locations are taken from starting point (0, 0), which is referred to as the home position. In incremental format there are no assigned or home coordinates. The cutter tool bit moves in spaces (increments) relative to the coordinates previously listed. The absolute format is typically used for the main body of a CNC program. This allows the cutting tool to be given a home position to start and end its job. The incremental format is used in the middle of a program when a repetitious cycle (commonly referred to as a canned cycle) is needed. A canned cycle is a cutting pattern that can be programmed to repeat as many times as desired. It can reduce the size of a program tremendously, depending on the number of machining operations involved. The size of a program is reduced by a canned cycle because a programmer does not have to give the fixed coordinates of each move of the cutting tool. A programmer must only give the distance from each previous move of the cutter for one cycle. After that, a programmer merely has to list the number of times the cycle must be repeated. A programmer can also call up the canned cycle and use it again to do a similar machining operation in another part of the work piece. 2.2.4 CNC Programming Because of the added feature of a computers memory, CNC programming is a lot easier and simpler than conventional NC programming. Most CNC machines can be programmed using a standardized list of codes that were developed by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA), as shown in Table 1. These codes include preparatory functions or G codes. Some of these functions include cutting an arc in a clockwise direction (G02 circular interpolation) and telling the machine that the dimensions will be given in millimeters (G71-metric programming). 2.2.5 Task Flow in CNC The task flow that is needed for producing apart using a CNC machine can be summarizedas Fig.1.2.The tasks can be classified as the following three types: Offline tasks: CAD, CAPP, CAM. Online tasks: CNC machining, monitoring and On Machine Measurement. Post-line tasks: Computer Aided Inspection (CAI), post-operation. Offline tasks are the tasks that are needed to generate apart program for controlling a CNC machine. In the offline stage, after the shape of apart has been decided, a geometry model of this part is created by 2D or 3D CAD. In general, CAD means Computer Aided Design After finishing geometric modeling, Computer Aided Process Planning, CAPP, is carried out where necessary information for machining is generated. In this stage, the Selection of machine tools, tools, jig and fixture, decisions about cutting conditions, Scheduling and machining sequences are created. Because process planning is very Complicated and CAPP is immature with respect to technology, process planning generally depends on the know how of a process planner. CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) is executed in the final stage for generating apart program. In this stage, tool paths are generated based on geometry information from CAD and machining information from CAPP. During tool path generation, interferences between tool and work piece, minimization of machining time and tool change, and machine performance are considered .In particular; CAM is an essential tool to generate 2.5D or 3D tool paths for machine tools with more than three axes. Online tasks are those that are needed to machine parts using CNC machines. A part program, being the machine understandable instructions, can be generated in the above mentioned offline stage and part programs for a simple part can be directly edited in CNC by the user. In this stage, the CNC system reads and interprets part programs from memory and controls the movement of axes. The CNC system generates instructions for position and velocity control based on the part program and servo motors are controlled based on the instructions generated. As the rotation of a servo motor is transformed into linear movement via ball screw mechanisms, the work piece or tool is moved and finally, the part is machined by these movements. In the online stage, the status of the machine and machining process may be monitored during machining. Actually, tool breakage detection, compensation of thermal deformation, adaptive control, and compensation of tool defection based on monitoring of cutting force, heat, and electric current are applied during machining. On Machine Measurement is also used to calculate machining error by inspecting the finished part on the machine, returning machining errors to controller to carryout compensation. The post-line task is to carryout CAI (Computer Aided Inspection), inspecting the finished part. In this stage, inspection using a CMM (Coordinate Measurement Machine) is used to make a comparison between the result and the geometry model in order to perform compensation. The compensation is executed by modifying tool Compensation or by doing post operations such as re machining and grinding. Reverse engineering, meaning that the shape of the part is measured and a geometric model based on the measured data is generated, is included in this stage. As mentioned above, through three stages, it is possible for machine tools not only to satisfy high accuracy and productivity but also to machine parts with complex shape as well as simple shapes. Because CNC machines can machine a variety of parts by changing the part program and repetitively machine the same part shape by storing part programs, CNC machines can be used for general purposes.